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Kings  xviii.  4),  and  g3dly  men  in  other  periods  o.  persecu- 
tion (Heb.  xi.  38),  sought  concealment  in  caves.  They  were 
also  resorted  to  by  lawless  or  distressed  classes  (1  Sam.xxii. 
2)  to  escape  the  restraints  or  burdens  of  society ;  but  they 
were  not  used  as  places  of  permanent  abode  until  they  were 
occupied  for  this  purpose  by  the  hermits  of  a  later  period. 
Tradition  indicates  certain  grottoes  as  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  nativity  (Luke  ii.  7),  and  of  various  other  events  of 
the  sacred  history,  but,  so  far  as  appears,  without  any  good 
foundation. 

Booths  are  only  spoken  of  as  constructed  for  cattle  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  17),  or  to  afford  temporary  shelter  in  case  of  need, 
as  in  the  case  of  Jonah  before  Nineveh  (Jon.  iv.  5),  of  gar- 
deners and  husbandmen  (Job  xxvii.  18  ;  Isa.  i.  8),  and  of 
the  entire  people  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  Lev.  xxiii.  42. 

Nomad  tribes  dwelt  in  tents,  which  could  easily  be  trans- 
ported from  place  to  place.  Judg.  vi.  5  ;  Isa.  xiii.  20 ;  Hab. 
iii.  7.  So  did  soldiers  under  arms  (2  Kings  vii.  7)  and 
shepherds  whose  care  of  flocks  obliged  them  to  lead  a  rov- 
ing life.  Isa.  xxxviii.  12.  Jabal,  the  son  of  Lamech  (Gen. 
iv.  20),  is  said  to  have  been  the  "father  of  such  as  dwell  in 
tents  and  have  cattle."  The  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac 
and  Jacob  lived  in  tents  in  Canaan  as  pilgrims  and  shep- 
herds (Gen.  xviii.  1 ;  xxvi.  17 ;  xxxiii.  18),  though  their 
ancestors  and  relatives  in  Mesopotamia  had  houses  and  set- 
tled abodes.  Gen.  xxiv.  10,  23.  Tents  were  sometimes 
covered  with  skins  or  mats,  but  mostly  with  cloths,  or,  it» 
they  are  called,  curtains,  woven  from  wool  or  from  goats' 
liair.  Ex.  xxvi.  7,  14.  Those  of  goats'  hair  were  black. 
Cant.  i.  5;  iv.  1.  These  cloths  were  stretched  over  one  or 
more  upright  poles  and  fastened  to  the  ground  by  cords  and 
pins.  Ex.  XXXV.  18 ;  Judg.  iv.  21  ;  Jer.  x.  20.  Tents, 
whether  round  >r  oblong,  were  divided  by  hangings  into  two, 
or  those  of  the  better  class  into  three,  apartments,  one  for 
the  women  and  children,  one  for  the  men  and  one  for  ser- 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  205 

vants  or  cattle.  Wealthy  families  had  separate  tents  for 
women.  Gen.  xxiv.  67 ;  xxxi.  33.  The  towns  and  castles 
of  the  sons  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  16)  and  the  villages  of 
Kedar  (Isa.  xlii.  11)  were  collections  of  tents  or  nomadic 
encampments. 

Houses  were  sometimes  built  of  brick,  either  burned,  as  at 
Babel  (Gen.  xi.  4),  or  simply  dried  in  the  sun,  as  those  made 
by  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  in  which  straw  was  min- 
gled with  the  clay.  Ex.  v.  7.  The  use  of  the  latter  explains 
the  fact  that  it  was  possible  to  dig  through  a  wall  (Ezek. 
xii.  5,  7),  and  that  a  house  neglected  and  exposed  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather  would  be  reduced  to  a  heap  of 
dirt.  Dan.  iii.  29.  Stone  was,  however,  regarded  as  the 
nobler  and  better  material  (Isa.  ix.  10),  the  use  of  which  is 
presupposed  in  the  narrative  of  the  tower  of  Babel  (Gen. 
xi.  3),  as  well  as  in  the  law  of  leprosy.  Lev.  xiv.  40,  42. 
The  temple  (1  Kings  v.  17)  and  palace  of  Solomon  (1 
Kings  vii.  9)  and  the  residences  of  the  rich  (Amos  v.  11) 
were  of  hewn  stone,  which  were  often  very  costly,  so  that 
the  term  "precious  stones"  is  used  both  of  those  employed 
in  building  (2  Chron.  iii.  6;  Isa.  xxviii.  16;  1  Pet.  ii.  4) 
and  of  gems.  1  Kings  x.  2  ;  1  Chron,  xx.  2.  We  read  of 
marble  among  the  materials  of  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
2)  and  in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus.  Esth.  i.  6.  The  festiv- 
ity connected  with  laying  the  corner-stone  of  public  edifices 
is  alluded  to.  Ezra.  iii.  10 ;  Zech.  iv.  7  ;  Job  xxxviii.  6,  7. 
The  cement  used  at  Babel  was  slime.  Gen.  xi.  3 — i.  e.,  bitu- 
men or  asphaltum.  Isaiah  (xxx.  12  j  speaks  of  lime,  and  the 
same  word  is  rendered  plaster.  Deut.  xxvii.  4.  Mud  was  also 
used  for  mortar  (Lev.  xiv.  42,  45,  where  the  word  so  trans- 
lated means  properly  "  dust  "  or  "  earth  ").  The  acquaint- 
ance of  the  ancient  Hebrews  with  the  structure  and  use  of 
the  arch  is  directly  vouched  for,  if  this  is  intended,  as  able 
scholars  suppose,  by  the  words  improperly  translated  "  emi- 
nent place"  (Ezek.  xvi.  24)  and  "troop."  Amos  ix.  6.    The 

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SABBATH-SCHOOL  TEACHERS  AND  TRAINING  CLASSES. 


BY 

JOHN   HALU  B.t>.:    EDWARD  P.  HUMPHREY.  D.D.,  LL.D.: 

WM.  HENRY -tSREEX,  D.D.,   LL.D.;    FRANCIS  L. 

PATTOX,  D.D.;  A>rD  J.  BENKET  TYLER. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
PRESBYTERIAN  BOARD  OF  PUBLICATION 

1334  CHESTNUT  STREET. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by 

THE   TRUSTEES  OF   THE 

PRESBYTERIAN  BO.\RD  OF  PUBLICATION. 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Westcott  &  ThomsoK, 
Stereotypers  and  Electrotypers^  Philado. 


INTRODUCTORY 


Something  more  than  one  year  ago  the  undersigned, 
after  careful  and  laborious  consultation,  agreed  on  a  plan 
of  elementary  study  by  them  deemed  suitable  to  be  pur- 
sued by  Sabbath-school  teachers  and  candidates  for  this 
most  important  office.  They  further  agreed  to  recommend 
the  plan  under  their  own  names,  in  the  hope  that  it  might 
encourage  the  formation  of  normal  classes  for  systematic 
study  as  a  preparation  for  more  efficient  teaching.  The 
form  of  recommendation  was  expressed  in  the  following 
words : 

"  In  view  of  the  widespread  and  growing  interest  in  the 
training  of  Sunday-school  teachers,  the  undersigned,  Chris- 
tian workers,  who  have  given  the  subject  special  study  and 
acquired  experience  in  its  methods,  unite  in  recommending 
the  formation  of  normal  classes  in  connection  with  Sunday- 
schools  and  seminaries  of  learning  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  would  become  proficient  Bible  teachers. 

"We  agree  also  in  recommending  the  main  features  of 
the  subjoined  outline  of  elementary  study,  with  the  under- 
standing that  such  modification  may  be  made  in  our  respect- 


4  INTRODUCTORY. 

ive  Manuals  as  will  not  destroy  the  essential  unity  of  the 
plan. 

"  J.  Bennet  Tyler. 

"  J.  H.  Vincent. 

"  H.  Clay  Trumbull. 

"  Warren  Kandolph." 

The  outline  agreed  on,  as  above  indicated,  has  been  in 
the  main  kindly  followed  by  the  gentlemen  who  have  pre- 
pared this  manual. 

It  is  meant  to  be  a  class-book  for  teachers  and  such  as 
design  to  become  teachers.  It  claims  to  be  only  an  outline 
of  the  topics  treated,  and  presupposes  regular  study  of  the 
subjects  which  in  so  brief  a  space  can  be  little  more  than 
barely  stated,  and,  if  practicable,  organized  classes  and  com- 
petent teachers.  Profoundly  convinced  of  the  imperative 
need  of  a  higher  order  of  teaching  in  our  Sunday  schools, 
of  a  larger  number  of  teachers  who  are  proficient  in  Bible 
knowledge  and  measurably  trained  in  methods  of  teaching 
and  in  management  of  classes,  this  volume  is  submitted 
to  the  great  army  of  Sunday-school  workers  and  such  as 
will  some  day  enter  the  field,  in  the  fervent  and  prayerful 
hope  that  it  may  meet  a  want,  and  be  helpful  to  such  as 
desire  to  do  good  and  successful  work  for  the  Master  in 
this  most  hopeful  and  important  department  of  Christian 
activity. 


CONTENTS. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

PAGB 

LESSON   I. — Inspiratiox. — The   Bible  claims  God   as  its  author. — 

Transmission  of  the  Scriptures 9-18 

LESSON  II. — Evidences  op  Inspiration. — How  did  the  book  attain 

its  present  authority  ? — Miracles 18-23 

LESSON  IIL— Prophecies 24-28 

LESSON  IV. — Structure  op  the  Old  Testament 28-34 

LESSON  V. — Order  and  Design  of  New  Testament  Books 34-38 

LESSON  VI.—    "  «  «  "  "  "     39-44 

LESSON  VII. — Rules  op  Interpretation 45-49 

LESSON  VIII. — Helps  to  Interpretation 49-54 

LESSON  IX. — Types  and  Symbols. — 1.  Suggested  by  circumstances. — 
2.  Authority  for  finding  types. — 3.  Correspondence  between  types 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  messenger. — 4.  Unity  in  Scripture 
types 55-61 

LESSON  X. — Difficulties  in  Scripture,  and  how  to  Deal  with 
them. — 1.  Where  the  ideas  conveyed  seem  incredible. — 2.  Difficul- 
ties in  the  nature  of  the  book. — 3.  Difficulties  from  error  in  tran- 
scription    61-67 

CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES. 

LESSON  I. — Sacred  Places. — Historical  origin. — Designations. — The 
tabernacle. — Its  structure. — Furniture. — As  a  whole. — Its  imme- 
diate uses. — Symbolical  meaning. — After  history. — The  temple  of 
Solomon.— Of  Zerubbabel.— Of  Herod ."....  71-78 

LESSON  II. — Sacred  Persons. — Origin  and  history  of  the  priest- 
hood.— Divine  vocation  of  the  sacred  persons. — Dress. — Ceremo- 
nial holiness. — Functions  of  the  priesthood. — Symbolical  mean- 
ing.— Typical  lessons. — Christ  as  priest 78-85 

LESSON  III. — Sacred  Rites. — Distribution  into  offerings  and  purifi- 
cations.— 1.  Offerings,  Characteristics  of. — Whole  burnt-oflering. 
— Sin-offering.  —  Trespass-offering.  —  Peace-offering.  —  Bloodless- 
oflferings. — Rites. — The  blood. — Offerings  of  the  poor. — 2.  Purifi- 
cations.— Ceremonial  uncleanness. — Significance  of  purification..  85-92 

1*  6 


6  •  CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

LESSON  IV.— Sacred  Times.— 1.  Distribution.— 2.  The  Sabbath.— 
3.  Other  seasons. — Historical  relations  of  the  Sabbath. — Feast  of 
trumpets. — Feast  of  convocation. — Pentecost. — Feast  of  taber- 
nacles.— Day  of  atonement. — Remarks. — 1.  Efficacy  of  Mosaic 
ritual. — 2.  Allowed  departure  from  institutes 92-99 


BIBLE  HISTORY. 

LESSON  I. — From  the  Creation  to  the  Exodus 102-111 

LESSON  II. — From  the  Exodus  to  the  Death  op  David 111-120 

LESSON    III. — From    the  Death    op    David  to    the    Birth    op 

Christ 121-129 

LESSON  IV.— The  Life  op  Christ 130-139 

LESSON  V. — The  Labors  op  the  Apostles 139-147 

GEOGEAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

LESSON  I.— Palestine.— Its  mountains 149-157 

LESSON  II. — Plains  and  Valleys. — Seas,  lakes  and  rivers. — Cli- 
mate.— Inhabitants  and  civil  divisions 157-165 

LESSON  III.— Cities 165-174 

LESSON  IV.— Other  Bible  Lands 174-183 

ARCHiEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

LESSON  I.— Food 185-193 

LESSON  II.— Clothing 193-202 

LESSON  III.— Dwellings 203-210 

SUMMARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE. 

INTRODUCTORY 213 

LESSON  I. — The  Factors  in  Religion,  Man  and  God. — 1.  Man. — 

2.  God. — Belief  in  God  universal. — Atheism  condemned 214-224 

LESSON  II. — The  Rule  op  Faith. — Where  are  we  to  find  a  standard 

of  truth  ?— Reason The  Church.— The  Bible 225-238 

LESSON  III. — Sin. — Its  nature. — Inability. — Original  sin. — Adamic  ■" 
relation 238-244 

LESSON  IV. — T"  i  Atonement. — Socinianview. — Sacrificial  view.  245-251 

LESSON  V. — -l'he  Person  op  Christ. — The  Humanitarians. — Ar)i.ns. 

— Nicene  doctrine 251-260 

LESSON  VL— The  Trinity.— Sabellian  doctrine.— Athanasian...  260-267 


CONTENTS.  7 

PAGE 

LESSON  VII. — Justification. — Nature  of. — Ground  of. — Means  of. — 

Effect  of 267-2b0 

LESSON  VIII.— Regeneration.— Nature  of.— Mode  of. 280-285 

LESSON  IX. — Election. — Arminian  view. — Calvinistic 286-291 

LESSON  X. — Sanctification. — 1.  Subjectively  considered. — Antino- 
mianism — Perfectionism. — Perseverance. — 2.  Objectively  consid- 
ered.— Divine  agency. — A  work. — Means 292-299 

LESSON  XI. — The  Means  of  Grace. — The  word. — The  sacraments. 

— Baptism. — The  Lord's  Supper. — Prayer 299-314 

LESSON  XII. — The  Future  State. — The  second  advent. — Resur- 
rection.— Judgment. — Between  death  and  judgment. — Sleep  of 
the  soul. — Hades. — Purgatory. — After  the  judgment. — Hell. — 
Heaven 315-324 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE    BIBLE. 

LESSON  I. — Place  and  Purpose  of  the  Sabbath-School 327 

I.  Its  Relative  Place. — Not  a  substitute  for  the  home. — Not  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  church. — Not  a  secular  school. — The  most  import- 
ant arm  of  the  Church. — Entitled  to  supervision  and  support. — 
Care  in  selection  and  training  of  teachers 327-330 

II.  The  Purpose  of  the  School. — A  Bible  school. — More  than  a 
school. — Reaching  the  heart. — Supplementing  the  home. — Subserv- 
ing the  church. — Amission  agency 330-333 

LESSON  II. — Organization  and  Management 333 

I.  Organization. — Sympathy  with  the  Church. — Officers,  and  how 
chosen 333,334 

II.  Management. — Qualifications  of  superintendent  and  teachers. — 
Secure  the  best. — The  office  magnified. — Uniformity  in  class 
teaching 334-337 

LESSON  III.— The  Teacher's  Office 337 

I.  Its  Sanctity  and  Divine  Appointment. — The  practice  of  the  early 
Church. — Our  Lord's  example 337-339 

II.  The  Teacher's  Power. — Its  divine  source. — The  nature  of  the 
truth. — The  manner  of  presentation. — Its  gratuitous  character. — 
The  susceptibility  of  the  taught. — Confidence  easily  won......  339-343 

LESSON  IV.— How  to  Study  a  Lesson 343 

I.  The  Importance  of  Preparation. — We  teach  wide-awake  pupils. 
— We  teach  most  important  of  all  truth. — Teaching  is  an  art. — It 

is  a  work  of  dignity 343,  344 

II.  Study  op  a  given  Lesson. — It  involves  work. — Keeping  ahead 
of  work. — Early  study. — Plan  of  the  lesson. — Rules  for  study. — 
Helps  to  study. — Utilizing  knowledge. — Odds  and  ends  of  time. — 
Study  as  a  means  of  grace. — Prayerful  study 344—349 

LESSON  v.— How  to  Teach  a  Lesson 349 

I.  General  Principles. — Simplicity. — Clearness. —  \mbiguity. — 
Accuracy. — Style. — Conditions  of  effective  teaching 349-354 

II.  Manner  in  Teaching. — Patient. — Polite. — Encouraging. — Af- 
fectionate  > 354,  355 


8  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

LESSON  VI. — How  to  Teach  a  Lesson,  Contintjed 356 

Methods. — Have  a  plan. — Review. — Recitation. — Simultaneous 
teaching. — Geography  and  history. — Pictorial. — The  exact  lesson. 
— Teach  something  well. — Illustrative  teaching. — Lecturing. — The 
catechetical. — Spiritual  import. — Jesus  only. — Application. — The 
true  conception. — Common  errors 356 

LESSON  VII. — How  to  Win  and  Hold  Attention 364 

I.  The  Necessity  of  Attention. — Attention  must  be  won. — Sur- 
roundings important. — Change  of  posture 364,  365 

II.  How  TO  Win  it. — By  quiet  determination. — By  a  quick  eye  and 
ear. — By  simple  devices. — By  avoiding  monotony 365-367 

III.  How  TO  Hold  it. — By  exciting  interest. — By  adaptation. — By 
recapitulation. — By  judicious  questioning. — By  pictorial  teach- 
ing.— By  teaching  how  to  study. — By  winning  love. — Pour 
maxims 367-371 

LESSON  VIII. — Place  and  Manner  op  Questioning 371 

I.  The  Place. — Importance  gaining  attention. — It  excites  thought. 

— It  fastens  truth. — Adapted  to  average  teachers 372-374 

II.  The  Mode. — General  principles. — Pupil's  knowledge  the  base. — 
Link  the  known  to  what  is  taught 374,  375 

III.  Classification. — Avoid  vague,  unreasonable. — Telling  too 
much. — RebuflBng. — The  simultaneous  method. — The  direct. — The 
logical. — Seven  rules.— Review 375-380 

LESSON  IX. — Power  and  Method  of  Illustration 380 

I.  Importance  of  Methods. — Selection. — Adaptation. — Figura- 
tive   380-383 

II.  Classification. — Verbal. — Narrative. — Visible. — Blackboard. — 
Maps. — Pictures. — Object  teaching. — Object  illustration 383 

LESSON  X.— The  Teacher's  Week-day  Work 388 

The  teacher  should  know  scholars — Confidence  must  be  won. — 
Must  be  a  real  friend. — Choose  fit  times  for  visitation. — Avoid 
faultfinding. — Invite  to  the  house. — Write  letters. — Speak  to  each 
scholar  alone 388-392 

LESSON  XL— Jesus  the  Model  Teacher 392 

Our  Lord's  lowly  lot. — His  self-abnegation, — His  tireless  zeal. — 
His  exhaustless  patience. — His  aflFectionate  manner. — His  exalta- 
tion of  Scripture. — The  great  Teacher's  method 392-397 

LESSON    XII. — The    Holy    Spirit    the    Teacher's    Guide    and 

Helper 397 

I.  Need  of  Mental  Culture. — Education. — Knowledge  of  child- 
hood.— Of  methods  of  illustration. — Bible  study 397,  398 

II.  Spirit's  Aid  Essential. — Better  than  miraculous  power. — Than 
personal  presence  of  Christ — Intangible  potential  force. — On  all 
alike. — Positive  teaching  power. — Power  a  mystery. — It  gives 
comfort. — Joy. — Promotes  Christian  growth. — Quickens  the  intel- 
lect.— Absolutely  essential 398-403 

APPENDIX.— A  Sunday-school  constitution. — Helps 405-408 


:.  MAR  1882 

^  '^T'^ 0^.0 Gin. "^L, 

Preparing  to 'Teach. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

By  the  Eev.  JOHN  HALL,  D.D. 


LESSOR  I.    . 

INSPIRATION. 

We  have  rect-jved  from  our  fathers,  and  they  from  the 
generation  that  preceded  them,  a  collection  of  short  trea- 
tises, which  we  call  the  Bible,  and  on  which  we  rest  our 
religious  convictions.  Have  we  evidence  that  the  book  can 
sustain  these  convictions?  Is  it  what  it  claims  to  be?  and 
if  genuine,  is  it  inspired  ? 

What  is  evidence  in  a  particular  case  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  case.  Assertions  concerning  matter  demand 
proofs  of  a  material  kind.  'No  one  proves  that  twenty 
packages  are  a  ton  weight  by  moral  considerations.  On  the 
other  hand,  no  one  proves  that  a  lie  is  wrong  by  weights 
and  scales.  So,  to  fix  the  date  of  an  event,  like  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  no  one  employs  mathematics ;  nor 
would  the  historical  truths  that  are  here  pertinent  give  any 
aid  in  solving  a  problem  in  Euclid.  In  other  words,  each 
separate  line  of  inquiry  requires  evidence  of  its  own  kind. 
Have  we  appropriate  evidence  that  we  may  rest  our  relig- 
ious convictions  upon  the  Bible? 

Suppose  a  book  put  into  your  hand  as  a  guide  to  Califor- 
nia, whither  you  expected  to  go  and  to  require  such  a  book. 

9 


10  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

You  would  look  into  the  book,  and  you  would  inquire  about 
it.  If  the  book  avowed  itself  to  be  wholly  occupied  with 
minerals,  if  the  style  were  plainly  that  of  an  uneducated 
person,  if  it  obviously  and  certainly  contradicted  itself  or 
what  you  certainly  know  independently,  you  would  seek  a 
better  guide.  Or  if  the  bookseller  in  whose  judgment  you 
have  confidence  should  assure  you  of  its  known  worthless- 
ness,  you  would  wisely  reject  it. 

On  the  same  general  principle  let  us  ask,  (1)  What  does 
this  book  say  for  itself?     (2),  What  can  be  said  for  it? 

I.  The  Bible  claims  to  have  God*  for  its  author.  Its 
opening  books  bear  the  name,  as  they  record  the  words  and 
works,  of  Moses.  But  he  was  a  prophet:  "I  will  raise 
them  up  a  prophet  from  among  their  brethren  like  unto 
thee"  Deut.  xviii.  18.  But  from  Ex.  iv.  14-16  we 
know  that  a  prophet  is  one  who  speaks  words  from  the 
mouth  of  another,  and  a  prophet  of  God  is  one  who  speaks 
"  from  the  mouth  of  God."  See  Isa.  li.  16 ;  Jer.  i.  9.  The 
other  prophets  claim  to  speak  from  the  Lord :  "  the  word 
of  the  Lord"  comes  to  them,  or  "the  hand  of  God  was  upon 
them."  In  the  New  Testament,  Jesus  speaks  as  God,  or  as 
uttering  the  words  of  the  divine  Father.  The  apostle 
Peter  says  of  the  writers  (2  Peter  i.  21),  "  Holy  men  spake 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost."  So  they  say  of 
themselves.  Among  the  last  words  of  David  we  read 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  2),  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  spake  by  me,  and 
his  word  was  in  my  tongue."  Ezekiel,  like  the  rest  of  the 
prophets,  constantly  says,  "  The  word  of  the   Lord  came 

*  We  do  not  set  out  with  an  argument  in  proof  of  the  being  of 
God.  We  assume  that- our  readers  do  not  require  this;  that  they 
feel  witl)in  themselves  that  there  must  be  a  cause  for  all  we  see 
around  us;  that  by  the  things  that  are  made  are  declared  to  them 
"His  eternal  power  and  godhead."  Rom.  i.  20.  The  Scriptures 
assume  this  belief  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  and  set  out  with  "'In 
the  beginning  God  created,"  etc.  Gen.  i.  1. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  11 

unto  me,  saying,"  and  he  rehearses  it  as  Aaron  repeated  the 
words  of  Moses.  No  one  can  doubt  that  the  book  claims 
for  itself  that  its  writers  give  "  the  word  of  God." 

That  is  what  we  call  "  inspiration."  So  the  book  says 
of  itself,  "  All  Scripture  is  given  by  inspiration  of  God." 
2  Tim.  iii.  16.  This  inspiration  the  book  assigns  to  the 
divine  Spirit.  Christ  says  that  David  "  by  the  Spirit"  called 
himself  Lord.  Matt.  xxii.  43.  David's  words  in  the  sec- 
ond Psalm,  ver.  1,  are  ascribed  to  God  in  Acts  iv.  25 : 
"  Who  by  the  mouth  of  thy  servant  David  hast  said."  The 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament  say  of  themselves,  or  it  is  said 
of  them  by  the  writers  of  the  New,  that  they  were  inspired 
by  the  Holy  Ghost.  Comp.  Heb.  x.  25  with  Jer.  xxxi.  33. 

The  New  Testament  writers  tell  us  of  this  Spirit  being 
promised  to  them  (John  xvi.  13),  of  the  fulfillment  of  this 
promise  at  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  4),  and  they  claim  to  speak 
and  write  in  the  Spirit — that  is,  with  the  mind  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  See  1  Thess.  ii.  13  and  1  Cor.  xiv.  37.  The  question 
here  is  not  whether  they  were  right  or  not.  The  point  is 
that  they  assert  that  they  give  their  writings  by  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

They  do  not  say,  "  I  have  thought  out  this,"  or  "I  can 
prove  this,"  or  "  I  have  learned  this  from  man,"  or  "  My 
conscience  teaches  me ;"  but  they  say,  "  God  hath  revealed 
them  unto  us  by  his  Spirit."  1  Cor.  ii.  10. 

The  question  is  not  now  as  to  how  much  they  know  of 
themselves,  and  by  natural  means,  as  when  John  describes  in 
the  gospel  what  he  witnessed,  nor  is  the  question  as  to  some 
parts  being  more  important  than  others.  The  leaf  on  the 
tree  is  God's  work  because  the  tree  is  his  work,  and  the 
book  claims  for  each  part  that  it  is  inspired  of  God  be- 
cause the  whole  is  inspired. 

It  is  no  objection  to  this  claim  that  the  style,  and  even 
the  language,  of  David  differ  from  those  of  Paul.  They 
claim  to  be  employed  as  they  are.     When  Ahasuerus  pro- 


12  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

claimed  liberty  to  the  Jews  (Esther  viii.  9)  to  defend  them- 
selves, and  sent  his  edict  "  unto  every  people  after  their  lan- 
guage," it  was  his  proclamation,  no  matter  in  what  hand  or 
tongue  the  scribes  wrote  it ;  and  to  have  made  it  uniform  in 
style  and  speech  to  all  would  have  been  unnatural  and  to 
most  of  the  people  useless.  A  proclamation  from  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  in  German,  Scandinavian  and 
English  is  his  proclamation,  and  its  fitness  to  the  end  is 
gained  only  by  its  going  out  in  different  forms.  Nor  are 
we  embarrassed  here  with  any  question  as  to  how  the  Spirit 
inspired  the  writers.  The  fact  that  they  claim  to  be  in- 
spired stands  by  itself,  quite  separately  from  the  question 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  realized.  We  know  of  crea- 
tion, of  two  natures  in  one  person,  of  resurrection  and  of 
regeneration  as  facts,  but  are  ignorant  of  the  mode ;  even 
those  who  make  the  most  of  the  power  of  reason  admit 
their  ignorance  of  the  mode  in  which  spirit  and  flesh  are 
joined,  but  they  own  the  fact. 

Nor,  finally,  are  we  troubled  by  the  general  resemblance 
of  this  book  to  other  books  in  figures  of  speech,  formation 
of  sentences,  varieties  of  words  and  methods  of  stating 
truths,  and  variations  of  language  in  the  statement  of  fact. 
Moses  was  like  any  other  man  when  he  was  God's  raessenr 
ger.  The  word  written  is  like  the  Word  incarnate  (John 
i.  14),  who  was  so  human  in  speech,  feeling  and  experience 
that  they  who  only  look  at  one  part  of  his  life  count  him 
nothing  but  human:  "Is  not  this  the  carpenter's  son?" 
Matt.  xiii.  55  But  those  who  saw  other  parts  of  his  life 
said,  "This  was  the  Son  of  God."  Matt.  xvi.  16;  xxvii.  54. 
He  was  both.  So  the  Bible  has  its  human  aspect  in  words, 
style,  poetry,  prose,  history,  sermon  or  letter,  but  it  has,  to 
those  who  look  deeper,  its  divine  side.  It  is  the  word,  the 
oracles,  of  God. 

A  person  of  candor  and  fair  education  who  took  the 
pains  to  know  the  Bible,  finding  in  it  this  claim  of  inspira- 


EVIDENCES  OE  CHRISTLiNITY.  13 

tion,  would  notice  many  things  that  support,  as  far  as  they 
go,  this  claim.  He  would  say  to  himself,  "  If  this  book  be 
inspired  of  God,  then  it  has  really  one  author  throughout; 
it  ought,  therefore,  to  have  unity  as  a  book.' 

This  unity  he  finds  in  its  representation  of  God,  of  man, 
of  sin,  of  goodness,  of  sin's  effects  and  of  heaven.  "  The 
seed  of  the  woman"  is  in  Genesis  (iii.  15),  and  is  not  lost 
sight  of  till  tlie  end.  Here  are  forty  writers,  with  great 
differences  among  themselves,  but  they  have  one  purpose. 
They  aim  at  building  up  virtue  and  goodness  with  perfect 
harmony  and  in  God's  name.  Can  they  be  toiling  to  make 
known  the  truth,  well  knowing  themselves  to  be  liars,  and 
publishing  on  themselves  the  most  dreadful  sentence  ? 

He  would  further  be  likely  to  say,  "  There  is  much  in 
this  book  which  I Jeel  to  be  true.  It  tells  me  so  much  that 
I  have  done !"  He  might  add,  too,  "  It  describes  truly  my 
needs,  my  restlessness,  my  fears,  my  sorrows,  and  it  cer^ 
tainly  undertakes,  if  I  will  receive  it,  to  disclose  enough 'for 
them  all — bread  for  my  hunger,  pardon  for  my  sin,  peace 
for  my  conscience,  rest  for  my  soul." 

Looking  further  into  the  matter,  he  would  find  that  around 
him  which  harmonized  with  the  Bible,  It  speaks  much  of 
the  Jews  as  favored  of  God,  living  in  Canaan,  worshiping 
in  synagogues,  keeping  the  Sabbath,  separate  from  others, 
cast  out  for  sin,  scattered  over  the  earth ;  and  here  are  the 
Jews  in  exact  harmony  with  all  this,  claiming,  and  able  to 
prove  their  claim  to  any  man  of  ordinary  education,  to  have 
been  for  three  thousand  years  as  the  Old  Testament  repre- 
sents them  ;  and  here  again  are  the  Christians  described  in 
the  New  Testament,  keeping  the  Lord's  day,  reading  this 
book,  setting  up  churches,  preaching  the  gospel,  as  they 
claim  to  have  been  doing  for  over  eighteen  hundred  years, 
and  as  scholars  admit  they  have  been  doing,  and  all  this 
as  it  is  declared  in  the  New  Testament. 

Pushing  his  inquiries  still  further,  he  would  find  Egypt 

2 


14  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

and  Canaan  iescribed  at  great  length.  "  Now,"  he  would 
say,  "  these  lands  are  open  to  us ;  let  us  see  if  the  book  and 
the  lands  suit  each  other."  He  finds  history,  geography, 
manners,  customs  and  government  all  as  in  the  book,  and 
moreover  that  buried  monuments,  out  of  sight  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  only  being  unburied  and  read  now,  corrobo- 
rate the  claim  this  book  sets  up.*  He  might  well  say  to 
himself,  *'  Everything  in  the  book  looks  like  its  being  true; 
and  it  alleges  that  it  is  inspired  ;  it  is  worth  my  while  to 
see  what  is  said  about  it."  This  leads  to  the  examination 
of  evidences  over  and  above  the  Bible's  account  of  itself. 

The  Transmission  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  Reformation  in  Germany  took  place  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  At  that  time  the  Scriptures 
were  in  many  libraries  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  exactly  as 
we  have  them  now.  How  do  we  know  this?  Among  many 
oth'er  ways,  by  the  public  controversies  and  discussions  be- 
tween the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  writers.  It 
would  be  just  as  easy  to  deny  the  Reforu^ation  itself  as  to 
deny  this  fact. 

But  discussion  did  not  begin  with  the  Reformation.  Jews 
and  Christians  disputed ;  Christians  disputed  among  them- 
selves ;  synods  and  councils  were  held  for  the  discussion  of 
unsettled  points,  and  books  enough  were  written  on  the  con- 
troversies in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era — books 
that  still  remain — to  make  a  library.  They  prove  that  the 
Scriptures  were  then  in  substance  what  they  are  now. 

*  A  careful  and  candid  thinker  might  further  say  to  hirqself,  "The 
believers  in  this  book  must  feel  very  sure  of  its  truth.  If  it  were  a 
fiction  in  any  form,  the  unchanging  East  gives  the  means  of  detect- 
ing the  fraud.  But  it  is  the  Christians  who  go  to  the  expense  of 
Bending  exploring  parties  to  the  lands  of  the  Bible  that  exact  and 
precise  information  may  be  gained  and  circulated.  They  have  no 
fear  of  furnishing  the  ^"'eans  of  refuting  the  claims  of  their  Bible." 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  15 

The  New  Testament  furnishes  proof  that  the  Old  Testa- 
ment existed,  and  as  now,  when  the  evangelists  and  apostles 
prepared  their  writings.  They  quote  (Luke  xxiv.  44)  from 
every  great  division  of  them.  The  "second  Psalm"  is 
quoted  thus  in  Acts  xiii.  33.  The  events  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  only  there — such  as  creation,  the  fall, 
the  flood,  the  call  of  Abraham  and  the  history  of  the  kings, 
Saul,  David,  Solomon — are  reasoned  and  commented  upon. 
in  such  a  way  as  shows  that  they  were  accepted  as  facts  on 
Old  Testament  authority.  See  1  Tim.  ii.  13-15;  Kom.  v. 
14,  15  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  38,  39  ;  Rom.  iv.  1 ;  and  Acts  vii.  45-47. 
But  we  are  not  left  to  the  New  Testament  for  proof  here. 
At  least  two  hundred  years  before  Christ  there  was  made,  at 
Alexandria  in  Egypt,  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  of  which  the  circulation  was  very  large.  That  trans- 
lation, called  the  Septuagint,  is  evidence  not  only  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  book  at  that  time,  two  thousand  years  ago, 
but  also  of  the  importance  attached  to  it  and  the  vener- 
ation in  which  it  was  held  as  the  sacred  book  of  a  multitude 
of  people. 

Nor  is  it  necessary  we  should  believe  all  that  has  been 
written  of  the  manner  of  its  translation  in  order  to  feel 
the  force  of  this  argument.  If  any  one  should  allege  the 
Greek  of  Homer  to  be  a  concocted  book,  prepared  by  school- 
masters of  this  century  for  educational  purposes,  and  rendered 
interesting  as  a  story  to  beguile  the  pupils  into  learning 
dialects  and  metre,  the  ready  answer  would  be  (apart  from 
their  ability  to  produce  it,  and  apart  from  all  other  evi- 
dences of  its  origin)  that  this  could  not  possibly  be  the 
case,  since  Alexander  Pope  published  a  translation  of 
our  present  Homer  in  1720.  Now,  the  proof  is  not  more 
complete  that  the  Greek  translators  found  our  Hebrew 
Bible  two  centuries  before  Christ  than  that  Ho.ner  was 
found  by  Pope,  as  we  have  it,  in  the  beginning  cf  the  last 
century. 


16  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

"We  do  not  dwell  upon  the  testimony  of  Jos».phus,  a  learned 
Jew,  who  prepared  several  works,  historical  and  controver 
sial,  in  which  the  history  and  opinions  of  the  Jews  are  fully 
laid  bare  for  the  information  of  the  Romans,  and  in  which 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Bible  are  not  only  acknowledged,  but 
enumerated  in  the  Hebrew  fashion,  and  distinguished  from 
the  Apocrypha.  His  works  are  in  general  and  deserved 
circulation.  The  value  of  this  testimony  can  be  illustrated 
easily.  Suppose  at  some  future  time  a  blundering  foreign 
historian  should  confound  the  revolutionary  and  civil  wars, 
and  declare  that  the  United  States  had  their  rise  between 
1860  and  1870,  a  single  page  of  Bancroft's  History  would 
be  sufficient  refutation.  "  Why,"  it  would  be  enough  to 
say,  "  the  preface  to  Mr.  Bancroft's  great  work  is  dated 
Bodon,  May,  1838,  and  the  United  States  must  have  been 
then  a  considerable,  recognized  power,  to  warrant  a  man  in 
writing  a  large  history  of  them."  It  would  be  as  easy  to 
disprove  the  revolutionary  war  of  this  country  as  to  dis- 
prove the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

The  sacred  Scriptures  are  not  the  only  ancient  books  that 
have  come  down  to  us.  We  have  Latin  works,  like  Caesar's 
Commentaries  and  Virgil's  Eneid ;  and  Greek  works,  like 
the  history  of  Herodotus,  and  the  history  of  Cyrus  by  Xeno- 
phon.  These  have  been  preserved,  as  the  Scriptures  were,  in 
manuscript,  carefully  written  on  parchments  and  treasured 
up  in  libraries.  They  bear  traces  of  their  antiquity  as  real 
and  distinct  as  the  signs  of  age  in  old  armor  or  old  jdIc- 
tures.  Indeed,  this  comparison  falls  short  of  the  truth,  for 
the  attention  bestowed  upon  armor,  pictures  and  such  ob- 
jects of  antiquarian  interest  bears  no  proportion  to  that 
given,  and  most  justly,  to  ancient  manuscripts,  many  of 
which,  being  very  rare,  costly  and  of  great  literary  value, 
were  the  boasted  possession  of  kings,  nobles,  and  rich  cor- 
porations. No  reasonable  doubt  exists  that  we  have  in 
substance  Ccesar's  Commentaries  or  the  history  of  Herodo- 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIASITY.  17 

tus,  of  both  which  innumerable  editions  have  appeared 
during  the  last  three  hundred  years. 

But  when  we  compare  the  authorities  in  ancient  manu- 
scripts for  our  present  copies  of  Herodotus  with  those  for 
our  present  copies  of  the  New  Testament,  we  see  how  ample 
the  ground  is  for  our  confidence.  Be  it  remembered  that 
the  question  is  not  here  as  to  the  truth  or  otherwise  of  the 
books ;  it  is  only  the  question  of  their  being  in  substance 
what  was  written  and  given  out  as  inspired  books  by  the 
evangelists  and  apostles. 

According  to  Isaac  Taylor  (1859),  about  fifteen  manu- 
scripts of  Herodotus  are  known  to  critics ;  of  these  several 
are  as  late  as  A.D.  1450,  several  others  of  the  twelfth  century, 
and  none  proved  to  be  older  than  the  tenth  century.  This 
is  above  the  average  number  of  copies  of  classic  authors, 
though  some  more  ancient  classical  manuscripts  exist,  a 
Virgil  in  the  Vatican  claiming  to  be  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, but  the  bulk  of  such  copies  are  between  the  tenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries. 

Now,  when  we  come  to  the  Scriptures,  we  find  that  editors 
have  had  under  examination  nearly  five  hundred  ancient 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  or  parts  of  it, 
that  there  are  copies  from  widely  diflferent  sources,  transla- 
tions having  been  made,  says  C.  Tischendorf,  into  Latin, 
Syriac,  Coptic  and  Gothic,  "between  the  second  and  fourth 
centuries,"  and  that  we  have  at  least  two  copies  assigned  to 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  one  of  them  possibly  a 
specimen  of  an  edition  of  fifty  copies  issued  by  the  empe- 
ror Constantine  in  A.  D.  331,  under  the  care  of  Eusebius 
the  historian. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  farther  this  line  of  argu- 
ment. The  Scriptures  were  widely  circulated,  were  in  the 
hands  of  persons  of  different  nations  and  tongues,  were 
often  in  controversy,  were  producing  changes  and  making 
monuments  of  themselves,  were  rendered  into  versions,  were 

2* 


18  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

being  quoted  extensively  and  with  every  variety  of  pur- 
pose, and  were  often  imitated  in  vain.  It  is  not  to  3  much 
to  say  that  if  we  have  any  evidence  of  a  genuine  work  of 
antiquity  coming  down  to  us — say,  from  the  Augustan 
age,  such  as  the  works  of  Virgil  or  Horace — the  proof  for 
the  genuineness  of  the  Scriptures  is  ten  times  as  strong. 


LESSOJf  11. 

THE  EVIDENCES  OF  INSPIEATION. 

Now  that  we  have  in  our  hands  a  book  that  claims  to  be 
from  God,  and  to  have  been  produced,  not  by  man's  effort, 
but  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  asking, 
Does  the  book  show  its  peculiar  origin  by  anything  pecu- 
liar in  itself,  or  is  it  a  book  that  could  have  been  made 
by  mere  men  ? 

This  question  is  very  important.  If  made  by  mere  men, 
it  may  be  untrue,  may  mislead  us,  may  be  shown  by  and 
by  to  be  in  error,  as  Virgil  and  Socrates  have  been  shown 
to  be  mistaken.  But  if  it  be  from  God,  since  we  are  sure  we 
have  it  in  substance  as  it  came  from  the  writers,  it  cannot 
but  be  a  perfect  rule  for  all  the  purposes  for  which  it  was 
given. 

Various  lines  of  inquiry  here  open  to  us.  We  may  ask 
of  the  book  itself  (a)  how  it  came  to  be  where  it  is  now. 
In  other  words,  we  may  argue  that  it  could  not  have  gained 
its  present  influence  unless  it  were  of  God.  We  may  ask 
(6)  if  its  authors  show  by  their  knowing  more  than  other 
men  that  they  were  inspired.  This  leads  us  to  examine  the 
prophecies.  Or  we  may  ask  (c)  if  the  style  and  general 
character  of  the  book  differ  in  any  such  degree  from  com- 
mon books  as  to  show  an  uncommon  origin.  And  finally, 
we  may  inquire  if  the  fruits  it  has  brought  forth  imply  the 
heavenly  origin  of  the  seed. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHUISTIANITY.  19 

It  will  not  be  possible  in  our  space  to  follow  out  all  these 
lines,  but  something  will  be  said  on  each  that  will  show 
how  they  can  be  followed. 

1.  How  did  the  book  attain  its  present  authority  ?  Its 
earliest  portion,  the  Pentateuch,  came  from  Moses,  the 
leader  of  Israel.  He  conducted  the  people  out  of  Egypt 
against  the  will  of  Pharaoh,  who  demanded  proofs  that  he 
had  a  right  to  interfere.  Ex.  vii.  9.  Moses  gave  as  he  had 
received  from  God  (Ex.  iv.  2-7),  and  showed  to  the  people 
(Ex.  iv.  30)  the  miraculous  proofs  that  the  Lord  sent  him. 
The  magicians  said  in  effect,  These  do  not  prove  anything ; 
we  can  do  the  same.  Or  they  said,  in  effect.  Our  gods  are 
as  strong  as  this  Jehovah.  Ex.  vii.  12  and  viii.  7.  The 
plagues  that  followed  proved  Moses'  and  disproved  the 
magicians'  assertion ;  and  though  they  did  not  soften 
Pharaoh's  heart,  they  convinced  all  Israel  that  the  Lord 
was  speaking  to  them  by  Moses.  "  How  do  we  know  that?" 
it  may  be  said.  Because  the  people  did  such  things  as  no 
people  would  do  unless  so  convinced.  They  left  their  homes 
in  a  most  fertile  land  (Gen.  xlvii.  6),  where  they  had  abun- 
dance (Ex.  xvi.  3),  set  out  for  Canaan,  engaged  in  dan- 
gerous wars,  and  submitted  to  heavy  tithes  and  numerous 
burdensome  regulations  in  dress,  manners,  food  and  wor- 
ship. But  how  do  we  know  they  did  so  except  from  the 
book  itself  concerning  which  we  are  inquiring  ?  We  know 
it  from  abundant  authority  outside  the  book,  such  as  Jose- 
phus  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  And,  best  of  all, 
we  know  it  from  the  actual  people  themselves,  whom  God 
has  scattered  over  all  lands,  alike  illustrations  of  the  oldest 
and  also  of  the  latest  portions  of  his  book.  In  other  words, 
Judaism  was  established  over  the  minds  of  a  race  by  a 
series  of  miracles,  including  the  manna  and  others  in  the 
wilderness,  and  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  which  did  not 
prove  the  truth  of  the  things  said  directly,  but  which  proved 
that  the  Lord  was  with  Moses  and  Aaron.     The  fair  in- 


20  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

ference  was  that  they  should  be  obeyed.  They  had  creden- 
tials from  the  Almighty. 

The  Hebrews  did  not,  alas !  adhere  to  God's  worship. 
He  was  offended  with  them,  and  often  chastened  them. 
Among  other  means  employed  for  their  good,  he  raised  up, 
as  he  had  promised  by  Moses  (Deut.  xviii.  18),  reformers 
whose  office  it  was  to  bring  back  the  people  to  obedience. 
Such  men  were  Samuel,  Elijah  and  Elisha.  They  spoke 
in  God's  name.  But  how  was  it  to  be  known  that  he  had 
sent  them  ?  Partly  by  their  speaking  the  same  things  as 
God  had  said  in  his  law.  But  the  people  did  not  know,  or, 
knowing,  no  longer  believed  in,  that  law.  Then  the  creden- 
tials were  renewed,  and  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xii.  17),  Elijah  (2 
Kings  ch.  i.,  etc.) ;  and  Elisha  (2  Kings  ch.  iv.  and  v.)  pre- 
sented them  to  the  people,  who  received  them,  and  acted 
upon  the  message  so  attested,  as  in  the  slaying  of  the 
prophets  of  Baal.  1  Kings  ch.  xviii. 

In  the  "  fullness  of  time  "  Christ  came.  The  nation  was 
corrupt ;  the  sceptre  was  departing ;  the  heathen  were  in 
the  ascendant.  The  Roman  power  had  opened  up  much 
of  the  world  to  safe  journeying,  and  the  Greek  language 
had  been  learned  over  all  the  principal  countries.  Just  as 
one  can  travel  over  this  continent  and  be  understood  every- 
where in  English,  so,  then,  one  reigning  race  and  one  tongue 
of  the  learned  prevailed,  so  that  while  Israel  was  under 
Roman  sway  there  was  opportunity  for  any  message  through 
Israel,  to  the  world,  to  go  abroad.  Then  Jesus  Christ  came 
(Gal.  iv.  4)  ;  he  was  a  Jew  (Rom.  ix.  4,  5),  and  his  message 
was  counted  at  first  a  Jewish  message.  Acts  xvi.  3. 

But  the  Redeemer  of  men  was  a  babe,  a  man,  counted 
"  the  carpenter's  son,"  poor  among  poor  men.  How  should 
it  be  known  that  he  came  from  God  ?  How  should  men 
be  assured  that  he  had  authority  to  require  and  execute  re- 
forms ?  He  replied  by  the  works  which  he  did.  John  v.  36. 
"  The  works  that  I  do  in  my  Father's  name,  they  testify  of 


EVIDENCES   OF  CHRISTIANITY.  21 

me."  John  x.  25.  So  he  offered  evidence  to  John's  disci- 
ples on  the  question,  "  Art  thou  he  that  should  come,  or  look 
we  for  another  ?"  Luke  vii.  19-23.  And  on  all  candid 
minds  the  evidence  produced  the  due  and  intended  effect. 
Nicodemus  speaks  for  all  such:  "No  man  can  do  these 
miracles  that  thou  doest  except  God  be  with  him."  John  iii.  2. 
By  his  miracles,  of  healing  for  the  most  part,  by  his  resur- 
rection and  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  by  the 
continuance  of  this  power  of  working  miracles  for  a  sufficient 
time  in  the  ^vorld,  men  were  convinced  that  God  was  speak- 
ing by  him  and  to  them.  And  if  so,  then  this  message 
must  be  true.  If  he  says,  "  I  and  my  Father  are  one,"  it 
must  be  true.  If  his  disciples  say,  "  Believe  on  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  and  thou  shalt  be  saved,  and  thy  house,"  it 
must  be  true.  So  men  argued.  So  we  would  be  bound  to 
argue  now  if  the  like  work  were  proceeding  before  our 
eyes. 

It  is  not  meant,  bear  in  mind,  that  this  is  all  that  the 
miracles  were  meant  to  do.  They  were  far  more  than  dis- 
plays of  divine  power.  They  showed  character  and  feel- 
ing as  well  as  might.  He  fed  thousands  by  a  miracle,  for 
*'  he  had  compassion  on  the  multitude."  Matt.  xv.  32.  He 
raised  the  widow's  son  to  life  because  "he  had  compas- 
sion on  her."  Luke  vii.  13.  They  who  saw  him  raise  Laz- 
arus saw  him  weep  with  Martha  and  Mary  (John  xi.  35, 
36),  and  they  drew  the  right  conclusion :  "  Behold  how  he 
loved  him."  But  it  is  not  on  the  moral  but  the  evidential 
value  of  the  miracles  we  are  now  dwelling. 

By  such  signs  and  wonders  Jesus  led  men  to  believe  him 
to  be  from  God,  and  a  band  of  disciples  gathered  around 
him.  They  were  men  of  ordinary  talents  and  observation, 
moving  in  his  own  rank  and  living  with  their  Master. 
They  had  opportunity  to  judge  of  him  living,  and  to  iden- 
tify him  when  risen  as  the  same  who  was  crucified. 
Themselves  believing  hira  the  risen  Lord,  they  persuaded 


22  PREPARING   TO   2  EACH. 

others  of  it,  till  the  cities  were  filled  with  his  doctrine,  and 
in  every  land  there  were  preachers  and  churches  of  Christ. 
Acts  xi.  1 ;  xix.  26. 

How  do  we  know  this  except  from  the  book  the  truth 
of  which  we  are  proving  ?  We  are  not  dependent  on  the 
Scriptures  for  the  evidence.  Heathen  writers  like  Pliny, 
the  edicts  of  Roman  persecutors  and  the  researches  of 
modern  historians  like  Gibbon,  furnish  the  proof.  It  would 
be  vastly  easier  to  show  that  Columbus  did  not  discover 
America,  but  that  it  was  always  just  as  it  is  now,  than  to 
disprove  the  history  of  the  planting  of  Christianity. 

But,  it  may  be  said,  why  did  not  miracles  remain  with 
the  preachers  of  Christ  ?  We  may  not  know  all  God's  rea- 
sons, but  we  are  sure  he  wastes  no  power.  The  wooden 
support  remains  under  the  solid  arch  only  till  the  cement 
has  hardened,  and  the  fastenings  remain  on  the  graft  only 
till  it  has  united  with  the  tree,  and  the  splints  remain  on  a 
fractured  limb  only  till  the  parts  have  knit ;  and  so  mir- 
acles remain  with  the  New  Testament  Church  until  a  living 
body  of  Christian  worshipers  has  been  raised  up  in  suc- 
cession to  the  Jewish  Church  and  the  New  Testament  dis- 
pensation has  gained  a  footing  in  the  earth. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  miracles  have  been  wrought  by 
others  than  the  Lord's  messengers  ;  and  if  so,  how  can  they 
prove  a  divine  commission  ?  We  reply.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  a  real  miracle  ever  having  been  wrought  in  the  world 
but  by  God's  servants  and  for  the  vindication  of  his  truth. 
Miracles  appear  to  be  the  seal  appended  to  the  commission 
of  God's  messenger  whenever  a  new  kind  of  communication 
is  proceeding  from  him.  That  seal  has  been  imitated  with 
more  or  less  success.  There  have  been  and  will  be  forge- 
ries of  it,  but  it  is,  we  may  be  sure,  entrusted  to  no  hand 
but  those  of  God's  servants. 

But,  it  may  be  said,  did  not  the  Egyptian  magicians  do 
as  Moses  did  ?    They  appeared  to  do  so,  but  it  was  not  by 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  23 

the  finger  of  the  true  God,  or  even  any  god,  but  by  their 
enchantments.  When  they  had  due  notice  and  had  time 
to  make  their  preparations,  they  copied  the  miracles  suf- 
ficiently to  give  color  to  Pharaoh,  who  wished  not  to  be- 
lieve. When  they  had  no  notice  and  no  preparation,  they 
were  impotent  (Ex.  viii.  12),  and  said,  "This  is  the  finger 
of  God."  See  Ex.  ix.  11.  From  this  time  onward  they 
stand  aside,  powerless  sufferers,  with  the  rest  of  the  Egypt- 
ians ;  and  "  the  thing  that  has  been  is  the  thing  that  will 
be." 

But  does  not  the  New  Testament  forewarn  us  that  "  signs 
and  lying  wonders "  will  be  wrought  (2  Thess.  ii.  9)  in 
furtherance  of  "  that  wicked  "  ?  True ;  but  why  should  we 
not  understand  the  efforts  of  the  modern,  in  the  same  sense 
as  we  are  compelled  to  do  those  of  the  ancient,  magicians  ? 
Why  not  understand  these  wonders  to  be  addressed  to 
ignorance,  and  not  only  intended  to  bolster  up  lies,  but 
themselves  lies  ?  Men  who  want  to  believe  or  to  disbelieve 
are  easily  convinced.  Miracles  have  won  men  to  Christ 
against  their  natural  corruption.  The  show  of  them  is  suf- 
ficient to  justify  to  men  their  belief  of  Christ's  opponents 
and  rivals. 

The  conclusion,  we  think,  is  established  that  the  Scriptures 
are  attested  to  us  by  miracles ;  that  each  succeeding  com- 
mission from  God  has,  as  it  were,  his  sign  manual ;  that  the 
Scriptures  teach  us  their  value  as  evidence ;  that  they  had 
and  have  power  to  prove  that  those  who  wrought  them 
came  from  God ;  and  that  to  have  deceived  the  disciples 
and  the  multitudes,  and  set  up  Christianity  on  evidence  that 
was  not  overwhelming,  would  itself  have  been  a  greater 
miracle  than  any  credited  by  Christians. 


24  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

LESSOJf  III. 
THE  PEOPHECIES. 

There  is  no  need  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  miracles 
and  prophecies,  which,  in  point  of  fact,  are  miracles  of 
knowledge.  The  turning  of  water  into  wine  is  something 
impossible  to  man's  power ;  to  announce  the  mode,  time 
and  circumstances  of  an  event  out  of  all  human  probabil- 
ity, centuries  before  it  happens,  is  impossible  to  man's 
wisdom.  Divine  power  appears  in  one,  divine  knowledge 
in  the  other. 

But  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God  appear  in  giving 
these  two  kinds  of  evidence.  The  miracle  of  power  im- 
presses the  beholder  directly ;  the  miracle  of  knowledge 
awaits  the  developments  of  time  to  give  it  convincing 
force.  We  in  the  nineteenth  century  do  not  behold  the 
miracles.  The  contemporaries  of  the  prophets  and  apostles 
appear  to  have  in  this  an  advantage  over  us.  But  they 
could  not  see  the  force  of  prophecy,  as  we  do,  in  its  fulfill- 
ment. The  nearer  the  miracle  of  power,  the  greater  its 
convincing  force  ;  but  the  convincing  force  of  the  prophecy 
increases  with  time.  There  is  equality  of  privilege,  there- 
fore, and  we  are  no  losers  of  evidence  by  the  ages  inter- 
vening between  us  and  the  messengers  from  God. 

In  weighing  the  argument  from  prophecies,  we  leave  out 
of  account  the  Old  Testament  predictions  fulfilled  in  the 
New,  because  he  who  denies  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible 
might  allege  that  the  forger  of  the  prophecy  forged  the  ful- 
fillment, as  the  writer  of  a  novel  makes  the  second  volume 
to  correspond  with  the  first.  We  dwell  on  those  predictions 
in  the  Scriptures  for  the  fulfillment  of  which  we  look  en- 
tirely outside  of  the  Bible  records. 

Two  things,  therefore,  are  necessary  to  the  understanding 
or  this  evidence — a  knowledge  of  what  is  written  in  the 


EVIDENCES   OF  CHRISTIANITY.  25 

word,  and  some  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  secular  history. 
The  latter  need  not  be  technical.  No  one  need  be  deterred 
from  the  investigation  by  want  of  time  for  extensive  read- 
ing. An  ordinary  good  education  either  affords,  or  puts 
within  one's  reach,  the  requisite  historical  knowledge. 

To  indicate  the  method  of  examination  without  length- 
ened statement  will  be  sufficient.  Many  scholars  now 
occupy  themselves  with  the  study  of  ancient  remains.  The 
site  of  Babylon  is  rich  in  these.  Brick  was  used  in  build- 
ing, and  the  ancients  often  inscribed  names  and  dates  on 
their  bricks.  Rich,  Ker  Porter,  Rawlinson  and  others  in 
English,  like  Niebuhr  in  German  and  M.  Mohl  in  French, 
have  described  and  compared  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon, 
fixing  sites  by  the  aid  of  Herodotus  and  others  who  have 
minutely  described  the  greatness  of  this  once  magnificent 
capital.  Let  any  one  now  read  the  description  of  the  site 
and  the  words  of  Jer.  li.  37,  43,  44,  58 ;  Isa.  xiii.  21,  22, 
and  xiv.  22,  23.  These  prophets  described  not  only  what 
came  long  after  their  own  time,  but  what  has  continued 
until  our  own.  Nor  are  we  dependent  upon  the  Scriptures 
for  an  account  of  the  greatness  or  the  fall  of  Babylon. 
Berosus,  Herodotus  and  Xenophon  have  written  of  it ;  and 
the  evidences  dug  from  the  heaps  of  ruins  explain  difficul- 
ties left  in  the  histories,  and  show  the  Bible  account  to  be 
accurate,  while  Xenophon's  is  partly  a  romance.*  The 
drunken  orgies  of  the  defenders,  the  refusal  of  the  invaders 
to  be  bought  off,  the  suddenness  of  the  capture  and  the 
name  of  the  victor, — all  these  are  among  the  particulars 
mentioned  by  Isaiah.  Josephus  tells  us  of  the  steps  taken 
by  Cyrus  in  consequence  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  one 
hundred  and  forty  years  before.     See  Ezra  i.  1-4. 

Layard's  Nineveh  is  now  a  popular  and  well-known  book. 
It  lays  bare  sculptures  buried  out  of  sight  for  over  two 

*  See  Rawlinson's  article  on  "Babylon"  in  Smith's  ^i6/ica/  Dic' 
tionary. 

3 


26  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

thousand  years  in  the  ruins  of  the  city,  and  which  prove  a1 
once  its  former  greatness  and  the  accuracy  of  Scripture 
notices  of  the  place.  Jonah  iii.  3.  The  value  of  these 
remains  has  been  recognized  by  all  Oriental  scholars,  many 
of  whom  are  successfully  engaged  in  translating  the  disen- 
tombed records.  With  his  accounts  the  student  can  com- 
l)are  Nahum  i.  8-10  ;  Zeph.  ii,  13, 14, 15.  One  of  the  most 
convincing  elements  in  this  argument  is  founded  on  the  fact 
that  for  a  long  time,  owing  to  error  or  ignorance,  there  ap- 
peared to  be  inaccuracies  in  the  Scripture  accounts  such  as 
a  forger  never  would  have  left  behind  him,  but  which  mod- 
ern research  has  shown  to  be  only  in  appearance. 

The  same  kind  of  comparison  may  be  followed  up  be- 
tween the  Moab  of  Scripture  (Isa.  xv.,  xvi. ;  Jer.  xlviii.) 
and  the  Moab  explored  by  Graham  and  Porter  {Cambridge 
Essays,  and  Five  Years  in  Damascus).  So  we  may  place 
Edom  and  the  Ammonites  of  Jer.  xlix.  in  the  light  of 
reports  made  by  Burckhardt,  Mangles,  Lord  Lindsay,  and 
other  recent  travelers.  Egypt,  as  depicted  by  the  book  of 
Exodus  and  verified  to  us  by  Wilkinson,  may  be  studied 
in  Jer.  xlvi.  19,  Ezek.  xxx.  13,  and  in  the  works  of  modern 
writers  sufficient  of  themselves  to  form  a  library.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  Tyre  of  Solomon's  time  (1  Kings 
V.  9),  of  Isa.  xxiii.,  of  Jer.  xxv.  22 ;  xxvii.  3,  of  Ezek. 
xxviii.  2-12,  of  Zech.  ix.  3,  4,  with  the  descriptions  of  it  by 
Harris,  Pococke,  Hasselquist,  Volney,  Robinson,  Stanley 
and  Renan. 

It  is  quite  worthy  of  notice  that  increasing  travel  and  the 
research  and  literary  enterprise  of  our  time  are  bringing 
this  department  of  the  evidence  of  divine  inspiration  into 
prominence  at  the  same  moment  that  men,  pursuing  other 
lines  of  scientific  inquiry,  reject  the  supernatural  and  deny 
the  existence  of  miracles.  God  does  not  "leave  himself 
without  a  witness." 

But  if  there  be  any  who  cannot  find  the  means  of  making 


EVIDENCES   OF  CHRISTIANITY.  27 

such  examiuation  as  the  foregoing,  there  is  another  line 
open  to  them.  When  a  court  chaplain  was  asked  to  give 
an  argument  for  the  divine  origin  of  the  Christian  religion 
in  the  shortest  and  most  intelligible  form,  he  replied,  The 
Jews.  There  could  not  have  been  a  more  effective  reply. 
Let  us  see  how  the  argument  stands  as  regai'ds  this  remark- 
able people.  The  Hebrews  had  a  land  of  their  own,  given 
them  by  God,  after  long  foregoing  promise,  with  most 
impressive  accompanying  circumstances,  and  under  solemn 
covenant.  If  any  race  could  be  supposed  to  own  and  be 
expected  to  retain  their  land  while  they  continued  to  exist, 
the  Jews  might  have  been  counted  upon  as  that  people. 
They  had  a  divinely-appointed  ritual,  with  a  hereditary 
priesthood,  and  a  definite  and  well-appointed  system  of  sac- 
rifices, through  which  sin  was  confessed,  divine  anger  depre- 
cated and  divine  favor  entreated.  The  abandonment  of 
this  ritual  by  the  people  was  a  most  unlikely  event. 

The  nation  was  singularly  compacted  together  by  race, 
by  history,  by  religion,  by  possessions ;  and  its  dispersiou 
over  the  earth  might  have  seemed  among  the  most  improb- 
able of  vicissitudes.  We  could  conceive  of  the  nation  being 
crushed  out,  or  of  the  fragments  of  it  preserving  the  sacri- 
ficial rites,  or  of  the  poor  remains  of  the  separated  race 
holding  together  like  the  tribes  of  our  own  Indians ;  but 
not  one  of  these  contingencies  has  occurred.  The  magnifi- 
cent kingdom  as  it  stood  in  Solomon's  time  is  no  more ;  the 
temple  is  the  ruin  of  a  ruin ;  Jerusalem  has  none  of  its 
former  glory ;  the  land,  as  compared  witli  what  it  was 
once,  is  desolate ;  the  altar  no  longer  smokes  with  sacrifice 
in  Palestine  or  elsewhere ;  the  people  are  scattered  ;  tribes 
are  lost ;  the  priesthood  is  of  little  account,  though  rabbis 
may  be  found  attached  to  the  synagogues,  in  which  are 
read,  as  of  old,  in  the  old  Hebrew,  the  sacred  books  of  the 
nation.  There  is  enough  distinctness  about  the  people  to. 
mark  them  oflT  from  other  races  and  to  render  emphatic 


28  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

and  indisputable  the  fulfillment  of  the  ancient  predictions. 
Who  can  tell  where  are  the  representatives  of  ancient 
Egypt,  of  Assyria,  of  Carthage,  of  the  empire  of  Rome? 
But  as  to  the  Jews — who  build  their  places  of  worship  among 
us,  and  shut  out  from  professions,  and  formerly  from  the 
occupation  of  land  and  from  politics,  have  concentrated 
their  great  energy  on  money-making — who  can  doubt  their 
identity  with  the  people  whom  the  Lord  brought  out  of 
Egypt,  whom  David  ruled,  who  crucified  Jesus,  whom  the 
Romans  subdued  and  dispersed  ? 

Now,  in  the  light  of  these  familiar  facts,  to  doubt  which 
would  be  to  doubt  all  history  and  to  question  the  evidence 
of  the  senses,  one  may  study  with  advantage  the  language 
of  the  great  lawgiver  to  the  people  in  Lev.  xxvi.,  in  which 
one  finds  every  feature  of  the  present  condition  of  the  Jew- 
ish people.  And  yet  their  condition  now  is  one  of  honor 
and  peace  compared  with  what  it  once  was  over  all  the 
world,  when  "Christian"  princes  gratified  at  once  their 
avarice  and  their  fanaticism  by  persecuting  and  plundering 
the  Jews ;  for  the  time  was  when  there  was  literal  truth  in 
the  language  inscribed  on  a  lowly  stone  in  the  corner  of  the 
necropolis  at  Glasgow  where  Jews  are  buried — 

"  The  wild  bird  hath  her  nest,  the  fox  his  cave, 
Mankind  their  country,  Israel  but  the  grave." 


LESSOJ^  IV. 
THE  STRUCTUEE  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

That  collection  of  works  which  we  call  the  Old  Testa- 
ment contains  thirty-nine  separate  treatises.  Some  of  them 
are  historical,  like  Exodus;  some  are  poetical,  like  the 
Psalms;  some  are,  like  Daniel,  part  history  and  part  pro- 
phecy.    These  books,  by  many  different  authors,  were  pro- 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  29 

duced  at  widely  different  periods,  stretching  over  at  least  a 
thousand  years.  The  earlier  writers  could  have  known 
nothing  of  what  was  to  be  produced  by  their  successors. 
Nor  could  their  successors  possibly  know  the  place  to  be 
given  to  their  works  if  preserved  for  future  generations. 
Yet  it  must  be  obvious  to  every  careful  reader  that  these 
treatises  have  a  true  unity  among  them.  Examine  an  En- 
cyclopedia or  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  you  see 
at  a  glance  that  there  was  an  editor  who  corresponded  with 
various  writers,  assigned  their  parts,  and  took  care  that 
each  should  have  his  place.  You  would  not  be  likely  to 
believe  that  without  concert  or  a  common  purpose  all  these 
writers  had  happeiied  to  contribute  each  a  share,  which  when 
put  together  happened  to  make  an  Encyclopedia.  But  when 
the  writers  are  unknown  to  one  another  and  are  spread 
over  a  thousand  years,  such  an  accident  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

Then  was  it  by  the  choice  of  the  copyists  or  the  book- 
binders of  later  time  that  we  have  these  books  as  they  now 
stand  ?  Or  is  there  arrangement,  such  as  one  sees  in  the 
building  of  a  house  with  foundations,  walls,  windows,  roof? 
Is  there  a  structure  such  as  one  sees  in  the  human  body, 
each  part  fitted  to  the  other  parts  and  to  the  whole? 

Suppose  for  a  moment  our  Bibles  began  with  any  other 
book  than  Genesis;  in  the  absence  of  that  book  what  a  host 
of  unanswered  questions  we  should  have !  Imagine  Exo- 
dus the  first  book.  Who  is  Joseph  ?  Levi  ?  Israel  ?  The 
God  of  Abraham — who  is  he  ?  and  the  further  on  in  the 
volume  we  suppose  it  to  begin,  assuming  it  to  be  given,  the 
more  numerous  the  questions.  But  this  book  begins  at  the 
beginning  of  the  world,  as  we  have  it,  and  of  the  race. 
"What  am  I?  and  from  whence?"  are  questions  that  must 
be  answered  by  any  one  to  whom  a  Bible  is  in  tlie  least 
intelligible.     These  questions  the  opening  book  answers. 

How  did  the  existing  state  of  things  begin  ?     "  Matter 

8* 


30  PREPARING    TO    TEACH. 

is  eternal,"  said  man.  "No,  it  was  created,"  tliis  book  re- 
plies. "Matter  is  evil,"  say  the  dualists,  who  thought 
there  were  two  rival  principles,  the  good  and  the  evil,  the 
latter  having  to  do  with  matter.  "  No,"  says  this  book; 
"  God  made  it,  and  all  very  good."  "These  heavenly  lights 
are  God,"  said  Eastern  nations.  "  No,"  says  Genesis ; 
"  God  created  them,  and  all  else."  So  that  nature,  which 
is  before  grace,  is  accounted  for  and  put  in  its  proper  place 
in  Genesis,  and  without  one  line  of  unnecessary  or  bewil- 
dering detail. 

But  if  all  was  made  "very  good,"  how  is  it  that  we  have 
so  much  evil?  The  record  of  the  fall  is  the  answer.  But 
why  should  the  sin  of  Adam  and  Eve  do  so  much  evil  ? 
Because,  among  other  reasons,  men  form  a  race.  Then 
why  are  not  they  found  with  one  tongue,  if  one  race?  The 
record  of  Babel  is  the  reply.  Then  why  is  there  any  dis- 
tinction among  these  scattered  fragments  of  a  race?  Be- 
cause God  chose  out  of  all  a  people  of  whom  Abraham, 
Isaac  and  Jacob  were  the  heads,  to  bear  his  name  and  re- 
ceive his  law. 

But  perhaps  these  are  only  mythical  accounts,  half 
poetry,  half  religion,  intended  to  satisfy  men.  Then  is 
Joseph  mythical  ?  or  Egypt  ?  or  Moses  ?  Are  the  sacrifices 
mythical  ?  or  the  Jews  of  our  day  ?  Where  does  the  myth 
end  and  the  history  begin?  The  book  of  Exodus  is  the 
answer  to  the  question  with  which  a  reader  of  Genesis  would 
lay  down  the  book.  Did  God  visit  the  people  ?  Did  he 
bring  them  out?  and  when  they  were  brought  out,  how  did 
he  train  them  ?  What  was  done  with  them  ?  The  remain- 
der of  the  Pentateuch  settles  these  questions. 

And  not  only  so,  but  it  provides  as  it  were  for  its  own 
preservation.     The  right  of  the  people  to  their  land,  of 
each  tribe  to  its  inheritance,  of  the  priests  to  their  main 
tenance,  of  the  debtor  to  the  return  of  the  land  with  whicl 
he  had  been  forced  to  part  at  the  jubilee, — all  this  was  sel 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  31 

tied  in  the  law  of  Moses.  The  dress,  habits,  rites,  taxes, 
and  civil  affairs  of  the  people  were  determined  authori- 
tatively by  this  law.  They  might,  and,  alas !  did  often,  turn 
away  from  its  moral  and  spiritual  precepts,  but  they  were 
held  fast  as  a  people  by  its  social  and  political  arrange- 
ments. The  legislation  of  the  Pentateuch  made  the  Jewiiih 
people,  and  the  Jewish  people  attest  the  Pentateuch. 

The  succession  of  the  book  of  Joshua  to  those  of  Moses 
is  as  natural  as  his  elevation  to  power  after  the  death  of 
his  great  leader.  How  God  fulfilled  "  the  promises  made  to 
the  fathers  "  is  here  set  forth,  and  the  faithfulness  of  God 
is  proved.     God  is  true,  though  every  man  be  a  liar. 

But  suppose  the  record  closed  with  Joshua;  we  should 
be  left  with  many  natural  yet  unanswered  questions.  Did 
the  people  follow  the  law  fully  ?  Was  the  omincnis  an- 
nouncement of  decline,  made  by  Moses  (Dent.  xxxi.  16) 
and  renewed  by  Joshua,  realized  ?  Did  repentance  follow 
punishment,  as  the  Lord  said  ?  The  book  of  Judges  (of 
which  Ruth  is  an  appendix)  replies  with  its  various  apos- 
tasies, humiliations,  and  restorations  by  the  means  of  judges 
whom  God  raised  up  for  the  purpose. 

The  judges  form  the  connecting  link  between  Moses  and 
the  theocracy  he  guarded  so  well  and  the  new  form  of 
government,  in  their  choice  of  which,  though  God  gave 
the  people  the  desire  of  their  hearts,  yet  he  beheld  a  de- 
parture from  himself.  1  Sam.  viii.  7.  The  kingdom  be- 
comes historical.  Suppose  we  had  not  the  books  of  Sam- 
uel and  the  Kings ;  we  should  be  sorely  perplexed  by  the 
record  on  brick  and  stone  from  Nineveh  and  from  Assvr- 
ian  palaces  now  becoming  legible  to  men.  Moabite  stones, 
instead  of  being  helps  and  proofs  of  Scripture,  would  be 
hopeless  puzzles  to  us.  "  We  have  the  theocracy  of  tlie 
early  Jews,"  men  might  say,  "  and  we  have  tlie  scattered 
modern  Jews  without  king  or  priest  in  a  condition  very 
unlike  that  of  their  fathers,  indeed  ;  but  here  is  notice  of 


32  PEEl-AEiyG   TO    TEACH. 

Hebrew  kings,   their  wars,    their    victories,    their   defeats. 
What  is  the  meaniDg  of  this?" 

The  books  of  Samuel  and  the  Kings  reply  to  this  question. 
They  illustrate  further  still  the  declensions,  guilt,  and  pun- 
ishment of  the  people,  and  show  us  how  the  Prophets  rose 
to  influence  and  authority.  A  rebellious  people  forgets 
God's  law.  The  knowledge  of  himself  is  in  danger  of  dy- 
ing out.  These  men  are  raised  up,  the  counterpart  of  the 
judges,  to  reform,  to  teach  the  people,  to  vindicate  God. 
and  to  prepare  the  Jews — that  is,  the  Church  of  God  as  it 
then  stood — for  a  new  and  different  state  of  things,  in  which 
the  priest  should  be  esteemed  only  historically  and  as  he 
foreshadowed  Jesus  Christ,  the  great  High  Priest. 

He  who  visits  Rome  or  reads  Roman  history  cannot 
help  becoming  acquainted  in  some  degree  with  the  Hebrew 
temple.  The  arch  of  Titus  recalls  it.  Suppose  we  had  not 
these  books ;  how  incomplete  our  knowledge  would  be ! 
"  Here,"  one  might  say,  *'  w^e  have  Moses  and  a  tent  in 
•which  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  Hebrew  religion  are  stored ; 
and  in  later  times  w^e  have  the  scattered  Hebrews  without 
even  that ;  w^hat  is  the  meaning  of  this  temple?"  The  his- 
tory of  Solomon  is  the  answer.  But  it  would  not  be  intel- 
ligible— his  prayer,  for  example,  at  the  dedication — if  we 
had  not  the  history  of  David.  Nor  would  that  history  be 
intelligible  without  that  of  Saul  and  the  wars  in  which 
the  house  of  Saul  disputed  the  throne  with  David.  The 
narrative,  however,  of  Solomon's  enormous  outlay  of  money, 
zeal,  and  taste  on  the  edifice  replies  to  all  these  questions, 
and  explains,  moreover,  the  eager  attachment  of  the  race  to 
Jerusalem  and  their  national  temple. 

But  was  all  this  career  of  rise  and  fall,  revival  and  decay 
simply  for  the  maintenance  of  a  kingdom  ?  No,  truly.  The 
rational  was  in  order  to  the  moral,  and  this  in  a  twofold 
sense. 

1.  The  Hebrews  were  to  be  trained  in  the  fear  and  love 


EVIDEyCJi^  OF  CHRISTIAXITY.  33 

of  God.  Was  the  trajiiing  a  total  failure?  No.  How  do 
"sve  know  this  ?  The  devotional  writings  of  David  and  others 
of  his  time  furnish  the  reply.  The  heart  of  the  Church  in 
all  ages  has  beaten  in  response  to  tiieir  testimonies.  In 
love  to  God,  trust  in  his  word,  sense  of  his  majesty,  admi- 
ration of  his  mighty  acts,  cleaving  to  him,  thirsting  after 
him,  the  heart  .of  the  Church  has  never  risen  above  these 
sacred  compositions.  They  are  the  evidences  that  the  in- 
stitutions were  in  order  to  something  higher,  that  the  Jew- 
ish system  was  the  scaffolding  for  a  great  spiritual  building, 
and  that  it  was  not,  after  all,  reared  in  vain.  Besides,  these 
psalms,  to  be  fully  intelligible  to  us,  require  the  history,  pre- 
cisely as  the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament  require  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

2.  The  Hebrews  had  a  relation  to  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  to  whom  they  were  by  their  laws  and  institutions  to 
give  light.  Ex.  xxxiii.  16.  And  so,  without  any  will  of 
theirs,  they  were  in  contact  not  only  with  the  Egyptians, 
at  that  time  the  first  of  the  nations,  but  later  with  Assyr- 
ians, Medo-Persians,  Grecians,  and  Koraans.  The  great  em- 
pires of  the  world  had  brought  to  their  notice  the  Lord 
God  of  the  Hebrews.  The  record  of  this  is  given  us  in  the 
closing  portions  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  and  in  Daniel, 
and  the  remainder  is  matter  of  prophecy,  of  which  the 
New  Testament  and  later  history  give  the  fulfillment.  Nor 
is  this  overlooked  in  the  composition  and  structure  of  the  Old 
Testament,  for  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  illustrate 
the  influence  of  the  Jews  on  surrounding  nations,  and  at 
the  same  time,  through  the  temple,  connect  together  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New. 

It  only  remains  to  say  that  the  prophets — commonly  dis- 
tinguished as  the  four  major  and  the  twelve  minor — 
were  at  once  the  teachers  of  their  time,  the  organs  through 
which  God  declared  his  will  and  the  duty  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  means  through  Mhich  the  divinely-given  re- 


34  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

ligion  was  and  is  attested  to  men,  some  of  their  predictions 
receiving  fulfiiiment  within  the  time  covered  by  the  Old 
Testament,  and  yet  others  within  the  time  of  the  New 
Testament,  while  some  still  remain  unfulfilled  to  exercise 
and  sustain  the  faith  of  the  people  of  God.  They  are  most 
wisely  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  because  the  transi- 
tion is  made  through  them  from  a  state  of  things  in  which 
the  priest  is  the  prominent  actor  and  leader  to  another 
condition  of  affairs  in  which  "  apostles,  prophets,  evangel- 
ists, pastors  and  teachers"  become  the  appointed  means  of 
maintaining  divine  service.  Eph.  iv.  11. 

These  various  component  elements  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  in  three  divisions  in  the  Jewish  method  of  arranging, 
the  third  including  the  devotional  writings,  which  they 
called  Hagiographa,  and  at  the  head  of  which  they  placed 
the  Psalms.  Hence  our  Lord  said,  at  once  setting  his  seal 
on  the  Old  Testament  and  showing  the  real  unity  of  the 
whole,  ''AH  things  must  be  fulfilled  which  were  written 
in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the  prophets,  and  in  the  Psalms, 
concerning  me."  Luke  xxiv.  44. 


LESSOJf  V. 


THE  OEDEK  AND  DESIGN  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

BOOKS. 

Pursuing  in  substance  the  same  plan  here  as  in  the  last 
chapter,  we  inquire,  concerning  the  treatises  composing  the 
New  Testament,  Did  the  transcribers  and  roll-makers  settle 
their  order  ?  Is  it  by  an  accident  in  the  process  of  collection 
and  transmission  that  they  lie  as  they  do,  the  Gospels  pre- 
ceding the  "  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  and  this  book  followed 
by  the  Epistles,  the  whole  closing  with  "Revelation"? 

For  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  have  no  apostolic 
manuscripts.    Such  venerable  documents,  had  they  remained 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY,  35 

to  us,  would  have  been  worshiped  as  relics.  In  the  Mura- 
torian  Fragment  of  which  the  date  is  between  A.  D.  160-170, 
the  books  are  in  the  order  in  which  we  have  them  now,  ex- 
cept that  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  placed  after  those  to 
other  churches.  The  catalogue  of  Eusebius  (A.  D.  340), 
which  may  be  regarded  as  that  of  a  royal  edition  of  the 
Scriptures  under  Constantine,  gives  our  present  order. 
Athanasius  (A.D.  373)  repeats  this  order,  and  drops  all 
mention  of  "controverted"  books,  which  some  persons 
thought  inspired,  while  some  doubted.  The  council  of 
Carthage,  which  enjoyed  the  presence  of  Augustine,  gave  a 
catalogue  varied  from  ours  in  this  only,  that  it  places  James 
the  last,  except  Jude  and  Revelation. 

The  Syrian  Bible,  often  called  the  Peshito  Version,  and  the 
old  Latin  Bible,  of  which  the  Vulgate  is  the  later  representa- 
tive— that  is,  the  Scriptures  of  the  East  and  of  the  West — give 
us  our  present  order.  The  substance  of  these  statements  is 
that  the  Church  nearest  the  time  of  writing,  when  the  history, 
relations,  and  uses  of  the  component  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment were  understood,  was  led,  in  the  watchful  and  control- 
ling providence  of  God,  to  settle  upon  that  order  with  which 
we  have  become  so  familiar.  The  time  of  the  composition 
of  the  several  treatises  was  disregarded,  and  natural  fitness 
determined  the  arrangement.  In  the  Koran  we  might  as 
profitably  begin  with  the  middle  or  the  later  parts  as  with 
the  beginning.  It  would  matter  little  in  what  order  Bacon's 
Essays  are  arranged.  Not  so  this  collection  of  works.  Books 
of  science  usually  set  out  with  formal  statement  and  set 
forth  "  orderly  results."  But  we  seem  to  see  the  New  Testa- 
ment grow  as  we  proceed  with  the  study  of  its  successive 
];()rtions. 

Its  two  main  elements  come  to  us  in  this  wise: 
(1.)  Christ  Jesus,  in  person,  illustrates  and  enforces  cer- 
tain truths  to  hi?  disciples,  of  which  we  have  the  record  in 
the  Gospels. 


SC  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

(2,)  He  promises  to  them  bis  Holy  Spirit  for  their  further 
enlightenment,  which  promise  is  fulfilled,  and  under  such 
divine  guidance  the  rest  of  the  volume  is  furnished  to  the 
Church. 

This  is  the  New  Testament  revelation.  All  decrees  of 
councils,  all  opinions  of  venerable  fathers  and  ancient  writers, 
all  creeds,  symbols  of  belief,  confessions  of  faith,  only  repre- 
sent degrees  of  human  comprehension  of  this  revelation,  and 
have  authority  over  the  human  conscience  in  so  far  as  they 
can  support  themselves  on  this  revelation. 

Look  more  minutely  at  the  plan  of  this  New  Testament. 
We  open  the  book  and  begin  with  the  Gospels.  Here  is  God 
in  the  flesh,  Christ  the  revealer  of  God.  He  comes  from  the 
bosom  of  the  Father;  he  stands  in  the  presence  of  men.  Be- 
hind him  is  the  mystery  of  the  eternal  and  the  infinite;  before 
him  is  the  human  race  in  need  of  light  as  to  that  infinite.  He 
has  something  in  common  with  both  God  and  man.  He  will 
tell  us  what  we  wish  to  know.  He  is  the  source  of  doctrine 
as  well  as  the  subject  of  the  Gospels.  Now  that  he  has  given 
the  revelation,  what  will  men  do  with  it?  The  response  is 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Here  is  the  truth  of  God  in 
human  hands  in  actual  contact  with  men  ;  what  is  the  result? 
As  the  pupil  learns  grammar  or  arithmetic  in  school,  it  is 
common  to  give  abstract  rules  illustrated  by  appropriate 
examples.  The  Gospels  give  us  the  Saviour's  doctrines  ;  tlie 
"Acts"  present  them,  so  to  speak,  in  actual  application. 

As  this  application  is  made  to  various  conditions  of  the 
human  mind,  some  truths  need  to  be  unfolded,  some  de- 
•fended  and  some  guarded.  Some  will  assail  truths,  and 
they  must  be  defended;  some  find  them  obscure,  and  they 
must  be  set  in  clear  light.  The  Epistles  furnish  the  result, 
and  we  have  anticipated  and  met  in  them  the  difficulties, 
objections  and  perversions  of  succeeding  races  of  men. 

But  this  religion  of  the  New  Testament  creates  a  com- 
munity as  well  as  saves  individuals.     What  will  be  the  fate 


EVIDENCES   OF  CHRISTIANITY.  37 

of  the  coram  Liiiity?  The  book  of  Revelation  is  the  answer. 
A  man  standino-  on  a  hill  overlookins;  a  battle,  thouLrh 
unable  to  comprehend  each  order  and  manoeuvre,  yet  can 
see  if  the  troops  that  held  a  particular  position  in  the  morn- 
ing are  driven  from  it  and  their  opponents  hold  it  at  night, 
and  so  judge  of  the  decisive  result.  So,  as  we  seem  to  watch 
the  opposing  hosts  in  this  wonderful  book,  hear  the  trumpets, 
although  as  we  gaze  bewildered  on  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
struggle  w^e  may  not  comprehend  every  evolution  or  see 
the  object  and  end  of  every  movement,  yet  we  are  in  no 
doubt  at  the  end,  when  Satan's  kingdom  is  "  not  found,"  and 
the  followers  of  the  Lamb  occupy  all  the  ground.  All  the 
details  we  cannot  master,  but  our  faith  rejoices  in  this  cer- 
tain result. 

And  this  revelation  comes  like  the  Gospels,  and  yet  with 
a  difference.  Christ  in  person  gives  the  Gospels,  but  it  is 
in  humiliation.  He  also  gives  the  Revelation  with  its  un- 
folding of  the  w'ar  he  wages  from  his  throne,  but  it  is  as 
the  glorified  and  ascended  Saviour  and  in  vision  to  his 
servant,  and  it  is  a  fitting  close  not  only  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  to  the  entire  Bible.  Man  begins  in  Genesis,  in 
Eden.  He  is  in  communion  with  God.  He  has  the  tree  of 
life.  He  is  lord  of  all,  under  God.  He  is  perfectly  happy. 
Sin  comes  and  makes  fearful  wreck.  Is  its  sway  to  be  per- 
manent? Is  its  ruin  to  be  repaired  ?  Let  the  answer  come 
to  us  from  the  "  Revelation  of  John  the  Divine."  Here  is 
the  paradise  of  God  again.  Another  and  a  better  Eden 
blooms.  Man  is  in  it.  Here  is  the  tree  of  life.  The  taber- 
nacle of  God  is  with  men.  All  tears  are  wiped  away.  Sin 
is  cast  down  ;  its  author  is  conquered,  and  over  it,  among 
a  redeemed  and  glorified  multitude,  Jesus  is  enthroned 
victor,  and  God  is  all  in  all. 

He  who  candidly  studies  this  New  Testament  must  see 
that  one  pervading  mind  runs  through  it  all.  That  mind 
is  Christ's.  It  is  the  Testament  of  Jesus  Christ.  Whoever 
4 


38  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

preaches,  reasons,  persuades,  or  records  his  visions,  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  inspiring  guide. 

His  religion  rests  not  on  speculation  or  a  system  of  rea- 
soning, but  on  definite,  historical  facts,  proved,  like  other 
facts,  by  appropriate  evidence.  It  is  fitting  that  they  should 
be  placed  in  the  foreground.  So  they  are  in  the  word, 
'^rhese  facts  touch  human  interests ;  the  statement  of  them 
in  relation  to  men  constitutes  doctrine,  and  the  doctrines,  as 
they  act  on  men's  minds,  make  Christian  experience.  This 
experience  is  illustrated,  unfolded  and  estimated  in  the  suc- 
ceeding portions  of  Scripture. 

Men  act  on  some  such  plan  as  this  in  their  common 
affairs.  Book-keeping  rules  are  learnt  or  the  maxims  of 
law  are  studied  in  classes,  but  the  proficient  in  either  com- 
pletes his  professional  training  by  actual  practice  in  the 
application  of  these  rules.  And  such  is  the  order  in  which 
the  New  Testament  educates  the  Church  of  God,  with  its 
statement  of  great  truths,  and  its  ample  delineation  of  the 
working  out  of  these  truths  in  the  experience  of  the  in- 
dividual, the  formation  of  Christian  churches,  and  the  pro- 
phetic view  of  the  whole  community. 

Reserving  for  another  lesson  a  more  detailed  view  of 
the  New  Testament  plan,  we  close  this  by  commending  to 
readers  who  desire  to  follow  out  this  most  interesting  de- 
partment of  study  Bernard's  Progress  of  Doctrine  in  the 
New  Testament,  than  which  few  books  more  amply  reward 
careful  examination. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  39 


LESSOJ^  VI. 

ORDER  AXD  DESIGN  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

BOOKS. 

(continued.) 

Opening  the  New  Testament,  we  find  four  Gospels,  each 
occupied  with  the  life  and  death  of  the  same  Person,  and 
all  four  having  much  in  common.  A  thoughtful  person 
might  ask,  AYhy  four  ?  might  not  one  orderly  and  contin- 
uous narrative  have  been  given  us,  embodying  in  their 
natural  place  the  addresses  and  works  of  this  divine  Person  ? 
might  we  not  have  been  saved,  on  this  plan,  from  the  need 
of  "  Harmonies  of  the  Gospels,"  and  from  the  labor  of 
reconciling  slight  apparent  disagreements? 

But  there  are  objects  of  which  one  view  is  entirely  incom- 
plete. A  building,  for  example,  is  not  fully  represented  to 
us  by  one  picture.  The  architect  will  give  us  ground  plan, 
front  elevation,  side  elevation,  and  section  of  the  edifice  if 
our  conception  is  to  approach  accuracy  and  completeness. 
Why  may  not  this  wonderful  life  of  Christ,  so  important  to 
us,  so  many-sided  in  itself,  have  required  as  many  as  four 
pictures  of  it  from  different  points  of  observation  in  order 
to  render  it  approximately  complete  to  our  minds  ?  And  it 
must  be  admitted  that  these  four  writers  seem  bent  on  giv- 
ing us  each  a  view  of  this  life  and  nothing  else.  In  how 
many  uninspired  biographies  do  the  writers  turn  aside  from 
the  narrative  to  give  their  own  impressions !  There  are 
memoirs  of  notable  persons  that  might  almost  be  regarded 
as  the  opinions  of  the  writers,  with  notices  of  the  subject. 
How  often  one  hurries  over  these  opinions  searching  for  the 
facts,  and  overleaping  the  reflections  !  You  never  do  this 
in  the  calm,  colorless  narratives  of  Matthew  and  his  feHow- 
evangelists.  Thev  are  nothins;.  Christ  is  evervthing.  He 
does  stupendous  works.     They  are  not  seen  in  the  attitude 


40  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

of  wondering  admiration  or  heard  uttering  their  plaudits. 
Each  work  is  reported,  or  each  pithy  reply  is  chronicled,  and 
the  writer  hurries  on  to  the  next  point  to  be  presented  in 
that  busy,  varied,  marvelous  life.  "  Tell  us  what  hap- 
pened," one  is  tempted  to  say  to  many  a  voluble  recorder, 
**  not  what  you  thought."  One  never  says  that  in  studying 
the  evangelists.  You  are  put  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
attitude  of  a  hearer  of  those  authoritative  words,  a  spectator 
of  those  mighty  deeds.  And  if  there  be  apparent  slight 
discrepancies,  who  shall  say  that  there  has  not  been  a  gain 
from  them  in  the  greater  and  closer  scrutiny  to  which  they 
have  led?  There  is  undoubted  and  positive  gain  in  the 
proof  they  supply  that  there  was  no  collusion,  no  writing 
for  effect,  and  no  other  desire  than  to  state  facts  as  each 
had  the  means  of  knowing  them. 

But  there  is  adequate  reason  in  the  substance  of  the  four 
Gospels  for  there  being  so  many.  Many  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians— a  majority  in  the  first  century,  probably — were  of 
Jewish  birth.  Their  minds  were  formed  and  their  religious 
thought  was  moulded  by  the  Old  Testament.  The  stream 
of  their  feeling  will  run  in  the  old  channel  and  direction. 
The  Gospel  of  Matthew  meets  and  suits  them.  It  follows 
the  prophets  in  natural  sequence.  It  shows  the  fulfillment 
of  their  words  in  Jesus,  the  Messiah  descended  from  David 
and  Abraham.  Ch.  i.  1.  It  reports  the  sermon  on  the 
mount  and  gives  the  New  Testament  interpretation  to  mis- 
conceived statements  of  the  Old.  It  quotes  the  Old  fre- 
quently. It  breaks  down  prejudice,  conciliates,  instructs 
Jews  who  would  "  see  Jesus." 

But  a  very  important  class  of  men  joined  the  early 
Church  who  grew  up  as  Romans,  came  to  Palestine,  and 
learned  the  truth.  They  were  men  of  action,  prompt,  can- 
did, decided,  like  the  centurion  of  the  crucifixion,  or  Cor- 
nelius. They  were  important  gains ;  they  represented 
much.      John  Mark,  Barnabas'  nephew,  with  (how  given 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  41 

we  know  not)  a  Roman  name,  who  was  Peter's  companion 
and  animated  by  much  of  Peter's  spirit,  writes  a  Gospel  for 
them.  As  Peter  opened  the  door  of  faith  to  the  Gentiles  in 
his  ministry,  so  does  his  friend  and  son  in  the  faith  (1  Pet. 
V.  13),  Marcus,  open  it  in  a  permanent  written  record. 
Terse  in  style,  pithy,  rajDid  in  movement,  picturesque  in 
the  details  filled  in,  his  brief  Gospel  has  a  business-like 
directness  about  it.  It  begins,  with  little  introduction,  with 
Christ's  public  career,  and  crowds  into  its  pages  those  words 
and  deeds  which  make  him  appear,  what  at  length  Pome 
recognized  him  to  be,  Lord  of  the  visible  and  the  invisible 
worlds. 

But  the  gospel  is  for  the  world,  Jew  and  Gentile,  and  the 
life  of  Jesus  is  to  be  seen  as  in  harmony  with  this  grand 
design.  Accordingly,  Luke  writes  it.  The  companion  of 
Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  an  educated  man,  with 
the  breadth  of  mind  and  tenderness  of  heart  of  a  "  beloved 
physician,"  he  depicts  the  Saviour  as  one  whom  all  the 
world  may  receive  and  trust,  and  who  in  orderly  and  pre- 
cise narrative  is  traced  up  as  the  "  son  of  Adam,  which  was 
the  son  of  God." 

And  now  the  Church  has  three  pictures  of  the  w'orld's 
Saviour :  for  a  time  these  are  enough.  But  by  and  by  she 
comes  in  contact  with  modes  of  thought  sometimes  rever- 
ent, sometimes  scoflSng  ;  and  new  questions  begin  to  be  put : 
Who  is  this  Redeemer  ?  Sou  of  man  ?  Son  of  God  ?  Hu- 
man? Divine?  Or  is  he  both  ?  or  is  he  neither?  Who  is 
so  fit  to  give  information  on  these  momentous  topics  as 
John,  who  writes  with  the  calm  sobriety  of  age,  his  life 
lengthened  out  for  this  purpose?  He  leaned  on  the  Mas- 
ter's bosom.     He  was  his  beloved  friend. 

His  Gospel  begins  with  the  "Logos" — "the  Word  made 
flesh" — and  presents  to  us  the  amplest  statements  we  have  as 
to  the  dignity,  the  divinity,  of  our  Lord  and  his  unity  with 
the  Father.     It  ends  with  the  avowal  (ch.  xx.  31),  "  These 


42  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

are  written  that  ye  might  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ, 
and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life  through  his  name." 

Even  such  a  hurried  glance  at  the  evangelists  as  this, 
serves  to  show  the  fitness  and  propriety  of  four  Gospels,  that 
each  has  a  distinct  function,  and  that  each  supplements  the 
rest.  Shall  we  be  willing  to  part  with  Matthew,  with  his 
view  of  Jesus  a  lawgiver ;  or  with  our  view  of  the  inde- 
fatigable worker,  of  Mark ;  or  of  the  friend  of  universal 
man,  of  Luke ;  or  that  of  the  divine  Revealer  of  the  Father, 
the  Son  of  God,  in  John  ? 

This  divine  Teacher  not  only  gives  the  world  doctrines  to 
be  believed ;  he  founds  a  society  by  which  the  truth  shall 
be  held,  illustrated  and  diffused.  Who  so  fit  to  report  the 
growth  of  that  Christian  society  in  which  is  "  neither  Jew 
nor  Greek,"  as  such,  as  Luke  ?  Hence  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, from  the  pen  of  Paul's  companion,  follow  the  "former 
treatise"  (with  "all  that  Jesus  began  to  do  and  teach"  till 
his  ascension),  with  the  continuation  of  what  he  did  after 
he  was  taken  up.  For  the  book  may  be  as  fitly  called  the 
"Acts  of  Jesus  Christ"  as  of  the  apostles.  He  is  still  here 
in  action,  meeting  the  twelve,  sending  the  Spirit,  working 
the  miracles,  sending  Philip,  turning  Saul  of  Tarsus  to  him- 
self, and  watching  over  his  infant  Church.  Here  we  have 
the  truth  in  its  action  on  men — Hebrews,  Romans,  Grecians, 
philosophers,  and  barbarians.  It  is  presented  to  them  as 
men  to  be  awakened,  enlightened,  evangelized.  But  if  the 
Church  is  to  continue  with  organic  life,  there  will  be  aspects 
of  Christian  truth,  not  presented  to  them,  yet  really  needed 
by  the  evangelized.  Converts  are  to  be  built  up.  They  too, 
having  come  under  the  influence  of  truth,  will  ask  questions 
and  require  information.  How  good  it  would  be  if  a  man 
could  be  found  to  give  it  who  had  a  Gentile  connection  and 
some  familiarity  with  Gentile  modes  of  thought  and  life ! 
Paul  is  just  such  a  man.  But  he  will  suit  Gentiles  only  ? 
No.     He  is  an  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  and  fitted  to  ex- 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY,  43 

pound  the  significance  of  HebrcAV  rites  and  ceremonies. 
Has  he  not  been  brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel  ?  Paul 
is  with  us  as  a  worker  in  the  Acts,  but  let  us  see  him  as  a 
writer  in  the  Epistles. 

Now  we  come  to  a  new  department — namely,  the  training 
of  the  members  of  the  Christian  family.  The  method  is 
appropriate.  Familiar  letters — not  oracles,  and  not  treatises 
— convey  the  lessons.  Christian  experience  is  to  be  guided. 
Ciiristians  are  to  be  directed  how  to  turn  to  account  the 
positive  truth  ;  and  when  it  is  assailed  by  Judaism  or  by 
heathenism,  they  are  furnished  with  the  arguments  with 
which  the  assault  is  to  be  repelled. 

Nor  is  Paul  alone  in  this  department.  Corroborative 
testimony  is  given  by  Peter,  James,  and  John — "  pillars,"  as 
Paul  calls  them — and  one  of  whom  formally  endorses  Paul. 
2  Pet.  iii.  15, 16.  Seven  churches  are  addressed  in  this  way, 
representing,  we  may  well  believe,  the  various  types  of 
Christian  life.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  follows  naturally 
the  Acts,  in  the  close  of  which  Paul  is  left  teaching  at  Rome. 
It  deals  fully,  like  the  letters  to  the  Galatians  and  the  Co- 
rinthians, with  errors  in  doctrine  and  practice  of  which  Chris- 
tians need  to  beware.  Three  other  Epistles  are  marked,  like 
John's  Epistles,  by  their  practical  delineations  of  experi- 
mental godliness,  those  to  the  Philippians,  Colossians  and 
Ephesians.  The  church  at  Thessalonica  is  exercised  about 
great  coming  events,  and  the  letters  to  that  church — the 
latest  in  time — are  a  fitting  preparation  for  the  book  of 
Revelation. 

So  we  are  carried  intelligently  into  a  new  dispensation. 
Priest,  altar,  and  sacrifice  of  the  common  kind  have  sunk 
together,  and  Christ  is  all  in  all.  But  is  this  new  condition 
of  things  to  be  regarded  as  a  censure  on  the  things  of  the 
past,  as  if  they  had  been  useless  or  unmeaning  ? 

By  no  means.  There  is  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with 
its  direct  appeal  to  the  Hebrew  mind,  its  penetration  into 


44  PREPARING   TO   lEACH. 

the  heart  of  thiogs,  its  firm  grasp  of  the  Old  Testament 
facts,  and  its  clear  views  of  Old  Testament  principles.  It 
shows  how  the  New  Testament  Church  is  the  intended,  ex- 
pected development  of  the  seed  planted  around  the  base  of 
Sinai,  but  that,  following  the  divinely-given  light,  God's 
saints  have  now  come  to  "  Mount  Zion,  and  unto  the  city  of 
the  living  God,  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  and  to  an  innu- 
merable company  of  angels ;  to  the  general  assembly  and 
church  of  the  first-born,  which  are  written  in  heaven,  and 
to  God  the  Judge  of  all,  and  to  the  spirits  of  just  men 
made  perfect^  and  to  Jesus  the  mediator  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, and  to  the  blood  of  sprinkling,  that  speaketh  better 
things  than  that  of  Abel."  Heb.  xii.  22-24. 

But  how  is  this  organized  body  to  be  perpetuated,  and 
with  what  method  of  arrangement  and  action  ?  It  is  not 
the  great  question,  but  it  is  an  important  question,  and  is 
not  beneath  the  notice  of  Him  who  is  "  not  the  author  of 
confusion,  but  of  peace  as  in  all  churches  of  the  saints." 
1  Cor.  xiv.  33.  Hence  we  have  the  Epistles  to  Timothy 
and  Titus,  with  directions  for  the  kinds  of  oflficers,  the 
qualities  to  be  sought  in  candidates,  the  regard  due  to  them, 
the  nature  of  their  functions  and  the  results  at  which  they 
are  unitedly  to  arrive  as  the  members  of  one  living  body 
filled  and  governed  by  one  Holy  Spirit.  So — for  we  have 
already  noticed  the  aim  of  the  book  of  Revelation — this 
wonderful  collection  of  treatises  constitutes  one  organic 
whole,  to  conceive  of  which  being  made  up  of  a  number 
of  accidental  contributions  honestly  or  fraudulently  put 
together  by  mere  unaided  men  is  as  difiicult  to  us  as  to 
conceive  of  a  mass  of  molten  metal  running  into  a  steam 
engine,  or  the  colors  of  a  paint-shop  accidentally  running 
on  a  canvas  md  producing  "The  Transfiguration"  of 
Raphael. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  45 

LESSOJV  riL 

RULES  OF  IXTERPEETATION. 

The  Bible  is  \Yritten  in  Hebrew  (with  a  little  Chaldee) 
and  Greek,  the  languages  of  the  men  through  whom  it  was 
given,  and  for  whom  its  several  parts  W'ere,  at  the  time  when 
they  were  given,  intended.  These  are  now  dead  languages — 
that  is,  they  are  not  now  in  use  in  the  speech  of  man. 

This  is  a  disadvantage,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it 
could  be  otherwise.  To  have  placed  among  men  a  revela- 
tion in  a  modern  language  would  have  given  no  aid  to  them. 
Not  understanding  it,  and  not  having  any  means  of  gaining 
a  knowledge  of  its  nature  as  we  have  of  ancient  documents, 
they  would  have  had  no  motive  for  its  preservation.  As  it 
is,  the  divine  wisdom  appears  in  bestowing  a  book  which 
men  understood  and  valued  at  the  time,  out  of  which  their 
character  and  their  institutions  grew,  and  which  as  human 
speech  changed  made  inquiry  and  research  necessary,  and 
so  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  scholarship  of  the 
world. 

"We  have  the  means  of  determining  the  general  sense  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Greek  translation  made  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  century  before  Christ,  at  Alexandria, 
and  in  common  use  among  the  Greek-speaking  Hebrews 
before  our  Lord's  time.  We  have  a  corresponding  aid  to 
the  understanding  of  its  history  in  the  works  of  Josephus. 
The  New  Testament  being  in  Greek,  in  which  Josephus 
and  Philo  wrote,  and  being  accompanied  and  followed  by 
many  Greek  writings,  as  those  of  the  rabbis,  the  Greek 
classic  authors  and  the  early  Greek-speaking  Fathers,  we 
have  a  rich  abundance  of  what  are  called  collateral  means 
of  understanding  its  peculiarities. 

If,  therefore,  defective  translations  of  either  Testament  be 
put  into  circulation,  the  means  exist  for  detecting  and  ex- 


46  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

posing  the  defects ;  and  instead  of  these  means  becoming 
fewer,  they  increase  from  age  to  age.  Never,  for  example, 
were  there  so  many  checks  upon  any  deception  and  so 
many  appliances  for  discovering  errors,  if  any  exist,  as 
at  this  moment,  when  in  all  civilized  lands  there  are  so 
many  scholars,  and  in  all  the  lands  of  antiquity  there  are 
so  many  travelers  and  explorers.  The  ancient  Scriptures 
are  like  the  pyramids  of  Egypt ;  they  are  old,  and  some 
mystery  shrouds  their  early  history,  but  more  persons  know 
of  them  now,  and  more  living  persons  have  seen  them,  than 
at  any  former  period  of  the  world.  A  thousand  years  ago 
the  removal  of  one  of  the  pyramids  would  have  excited 
little  notice.  Of  such  an  event  the  world  would  now  have 
notice  in  a  few  days. 

We  need  not  feel,  therefore,  that  we  are  material  losers 
by  our  dependence  on  translations,  to  the  right  interpreta- 
tion of  which  the  following  rules  apply.  Those  who  make 
the  translation  are  bound — as  we  are  when  we  can  consult 
the  original — to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  words  by  dic- 
tionary, grammar,  and  the  collation  of  contemporary  or  sim- 
ilar writers,  and  to  learn  the  usage  of  speech  at  the  time. 
And  having  faithfully  done  this,  they  stand  exactly  where 
the  general  reader  stands  who  has  in  his  hand  a  good  trans- 
lation ;  and  they  must  apply  the  same  rules  of  interpreta- 
tion. 

But  having  ascertained  by  the  aids  proper  to  the  case 
the  exact  meaning  of  words,  we  are  bound  farther  to  con- 
sider the  drift  and  aim  of  the  writer  and  the  sense  in  which 
he  would  employ  terms.  For  example,  the  word  "conver- 
sion "  is  used  in  one  sense  by  the  historian  when  he  describes 
a  change  of  religious  faith,  in  another  by  the  chemist  when 
he  describes,  for  example,  the  conversion  of  water  into  ice, 
in  a  third  by  the  lawyer  when  he  brings  an  action  against 
a  fraudulent  officer,  in  a  fourth  by  a  logician  when  he  de- 
ecribes  the  putting  of  the  subject  in  place  of  the  predicate^ 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  47 

and  in  vet  a  fifth  bv  the  theoloojian  when  he  means  a  rad- 
ical  change  of  heart.  Now,  a  candid  reader  is  clearly 
bound  to  consider  the  general  aim  of  a  writer  when  he 
finds  ambiguous  words ;  and  in  the  nature  of  the  case  many- 
words  must  have  a  common  and  a  religious  sense. 

In  addition  to  this  general  fact,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a 
Avriter  to  have  a  usage  of  language  peculiar  to  himself,  not 
difficult  to  find  out,  and  which  we  are  bound  to  remember. 
In  many  acts  of  legislatures  the  uses  of  words  are  de- 
fined, because  great  minuteness  and  accuracy  are  required  ; 
in  some  authors  definitions  are  provided,  as  in  mathematics, 
and  we  feel  bound  to  interpret  by  them  throughout.  This 
is  not  usually  done,  in  form,  in  ordinary  treatises  constructed 
as  are  the  treatises  composing  the  Scriptures,  but  it  is  often 
done,  in  fact,  if  we  attend  closely  to  what  we  read.  For 
example,  in  Paul's  letters  such  words  as  "flesh,"  "righteous- 
ness," "justification,"  are  employed  by  him  in  a  very  dis- 
tinct sense;  and  if  he  did  not  define  them,  it  is  because  he 
and  they  to  whom  he  wrote  both  knew  what  he  meant. 

It  is  obvious  enough  that  sympathy  with  the  aim  and 
theme  of  the  writers,  and  the  capacity  to  put  one's  self  in 
their  place,  is  a  help  to  understanding  them.  We  should 
say  so  regarding  any  other  form  of  compositions :  and  so 
regarding  the  Scriptures.  Blackstone  we  expect  to  be  best 
expounded  by  a  lawyer,  Adam  Smith  by  a  practical  man 
of  business,  a  poet  by  a  man  of  poetical  faculty.  If  it  be 
said  that  on  this  plan  we  shall  make  a  sense  for  ourselves, 
every  eye  seeing  its  own  beauty,  and  every  mind  catching 
the  echo  of  its  own  convictions,  the  reply  is.  No ;  the  check 
upon  that  tendency  is  furnished  by  the  necessity  laid  on 
one,  as  mentioned  already,  to  ascertain  at  the  beginning,  by 
ordinary  helps  and  rules,  the  simj)le  meaning  of  the  lan- 
guage employed.  For  we  are  to  go  to  the  Bible,  not  to  find 
in  it  what  we  desire  or  think,  but  what  its  writers  meant  to 
convey.     Our  sympathy  with  thea  aids  us  in  catching  that 


48  PEEPARING   TO   TEACH. 

intention.  A  letter  of  your  friend  is  being  read  by  a 
stranger,  who  hesitates  and  stumbles  over  it.  You  take  it 
in  hand  and  read  it  through,  not  only  because  familiar  with 
his  hand,  but  with  his  turn  of  mind  and  the  modes  of  ex- 
pression he  is  likely  to  adopt. 

In  this  connection  it  is  a  good  rule  to  keep  in  mind  that 
the  Scripture  writers  do  not  aim  at  effect,  are  not  ambitious 
of  literary  honor,  and  are  marked,  where  history,  instruc- 
tion, and  warning  are  their  themes,  by  great  simplicity — 
simplicity  which  is  not  shallowness.  In  portions  of  the 
Scripture  it  is  designed,  indeed,  that  "  dark  sayings  "  should 
be  uttered,  retaining  their  obscurity  till  the  events  make 
them  plain  ;  but  the  things  we  need  to  know  for  salvation 
are  usually  in  plain  and  direct  language.  See  as  examples 
the  Gospel  of  Mark,  Christ's  conversation  with  the  woman 
of  Samaria,  the  tenth  chapter  of  Johu,  the  sermon  on  the 
mount,  the  Epistles  of  John,  the  sermcms  of  Peter,  the  nar- 
ratives of  Paul,  and  the  accounts  of  the  crucifixion.  Take 
a  good  picture,  and  a  child  will  see  its  meaning  at  a  glance, 
for  to  tell  its  own  story  is  surely  the  first  requisite  in  any 
work  of  art,  even  of  a  ballad  ;  but  the  artist  who  has  him- 
self painted,  sees  more  in  it  than  the  child.  And  so  the 
parable  of  the  prodigal  son  carries  its  meaning — the  mean- 
ing it  has  for  him — to  a  schoolboy,  while  the  theologian 
sees  in  it  the  materials  for  a  volume.  "  The  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin"  has  been  apprehended  by  the 
child  and  the  unlearned  with  inexpressible  gladness;  and 
yet  what  depths  of  meaning  it  has  revealed  to  the  profound 
thinker,  who  sees  in  it  the  majesty  of  law,  the  boundlessness 
of  love,  the  mystery  of  Deity,  the  needs  of  humanity,  and 
the  glory,  at  once,  of  divine  grace  and  truth  ! 

When  types  and  symbols  are  employed  in  Scripture,  it  is 
a  wise  rule,  before  searching  for  the  basis  of  them  in  out- 
side literature,  to  exa^mine  the  Bible  itself.  Many  of  these 
in  the  propl"  etical  books  have  their  origin  in  the  historical. 


EVIDENCES   OF  CHEISTIA2^ITY.  49 

A  vine  out  of  Egypt  in  the  Psalms  (Ixxx.  8)  is  best  un- 
derstood in  the  light  of  the  Pentateudi.  The  birth  "  of  water 
and  the  Spirit,"  of  John  iii.  5,  is  intelligible  in  the  light  of 
Ezekiel  xxxvi.  25-27.  The  picture  of  the  paradise  of  God 
in  Revelation  is  found  in  its  elements  in  Genesis,  and  even 
the  battle  of  Armageddon  is  stripped  of  some  of  its  mys- 
tery when  we  know  how  the  servants  of  Josiah  carried  their 
dead  lord  from  the  fatal  field  of  Megiddo.  2  Ki.  xxiii.  29. 

Our  aim  being  to  give  simple  directions  for  intellectually 
understanding  this  inspired  book,  we  do  not  here  advert  to 
the  absolute  need  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  a  right  spiritual  and 
saving  knowledge  of  it — a  point  not  overlooked  in  other  por- 
tions of  this  volume.  Let  it  be  the  comfort  of  every  reader 
to  know  that  when  the  need  of  this  illumination  is  owned 
before  God  he  is  more  willing  to  give  it  than  parents  to 
give  good  gifts  unto  their  children.  jNIatt.  vii.  11. 


LESSOX  nil. 

HELPS   TO   IXTEEPRLTATION. 

The  Bible  being  an  ancient  book,  given  in  another  land 
and  in  a  condition  of  society  which,  tliough  singularly  un- 
changing, is  yet  materially  different  from  ours,  it  is  obvious 
that  we  may  expect  in  it  allusions  that  are  now  obscure, 
and  modes  of  speech  different  from  our  present  forms  of 
expression.  The  present  chapter  is  introduced  to  point  out 
available  helps  to  overcoming  their  difficulties,  and  to  en- 
courage readers  to  their  use. 

The  Old  Testament  was  given  to  the  Hebrews  in  a  lan- 
guage they  could  understand,  for  it  was  conveyed  through 
Hebrews.  Those  forms  of  expression  which  are  distinctive 
of  the  language  (every  language  has  such)  are  known  in 
books  as  "  Hebraisms."     The  language   of  the  Old  Testa- 


60  PREPARING   TO   TEACH.     , 

ment  was  exceedingly  familiar  to  the  writers  of  the  New ; 
and  just  as  our  sermons  and  prayers  are  greatly  moulded  in 
expression  by  the  Scriptures,  so  the  New  Testament  writers 
are  influenced  in  a  high  degree  by  the  phraseology  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Hence  we  find  phrases  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment modeled,  it  is  easy  to  see,  on  the  language  of  the  Old. 
To  understand  this  fact  will  often  save  from  misconception 
or  ignorance.  "Sons  of  Belial"  (1  Sam.  ii.  12),  and  in 
the  New  Testament  "son  of  perdition"  (John  xvii.  12),  are 
illustrations.  The  word  "Belial"  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
not  a  personal  name,  as  one  might  imagine  from  our  Eng- 
lish translation,  which  here  followed  the  Vulgate,  but  means 
worthlessness  or  wickedness.  A  son  of  Belial,  therefore,  is  a 
worthless,  wicked  person,  like  Nabal  (1  Sam.  xxv.  17),  just 
as  in  the  New  Testament  a  "son  of  peace"  means  a  peace- 
able, candid  person  (Luke  x.  6),  and  a  "child  of  wrath" 
means  one  worthy  of  wrath,  and  "children  of  disobedience" 
are  to  be  taken  as  disobedient  persons. 

So  double  nouns,  like  "spirit  of  promise,"  do  duty  for 
adjectives  and  participles,  and  the  name  of  Deity  is  em- 
ployed to  describe  the  highest  degree  of  excellence  where 
the  doubling  of  the  word  is  not  employed.  "Goodly  ce- 
dars" (Ps.  Ixxx.  10)  are  literally  "cedars  of  God,"  as  in 
the  New  Testament  "weight  of  glory"  means  great  glory. 
Koundabout  phrases,  such  as  "being  called,"  "  being  found," 
are  employed  where  we  use  parts  of  the  verb  "  to  be." 
Enoch  was  "not  found"  in  Heb.  xi.  5,  and  "was  not"  in 
Gen.  V.  24.  See  Phil.  ii.  8  and  1  John  iii.  1.  Gradations  of 
feeling  are  not  expi^essed  in  a  language  so  simple  as  the  He- 
brew, and  hence  stronger  exi)ressions  are  used  than  we 
should  employ  to  describe  sim})le  preference,  as,  when  our 
Lord  requires  his  followers  to  hate  their  parents  (Luke  xiv. 
26),  he  plainly  means  that  they  should  be  loved  less  than 
himself,  even  as,  in  Mai.  i.  2,  3,  Esau  is  "hated"  (Rom.  ix. 
13) — that  is,  loved  less  than  Jacob. 


EVIDENCES    .F  CHRISTIANITY.  51 

Positive  language  is  also  used  in  Hebrew  where  only  per- 
missive action  is  intended,  as  in  the  apparent  commission  to 
the  lying  spirit  in  1  Kings  xxii.  22.  The  withholding  of 
grace  is  all  that  is  meant  in  making  "the  heart  fat"  (Isa. 
vi.  10)  and  in  hardening  Pharaoh's  heart. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  all  lands  in  which  more 
than  one  language  is  employed,  or  in  records  stretching 
over  long  periods  which  cover  changes  of  language,  various 
forms  of  the  same  name  will  appear,  and  persons  will  be 
described  by  different  names.  So  Joshua  of  the  Hebrew 
becomes  Jesus  in  Greek  (Heb.  iv.  8),  both  meaning  Saviour. 
Hence  the  confusion  as  to  Moses'  father-in-law  is  in  part 
removed,  and  hence  we  see  in  the  New  Testament  Matthew 
and  Levi  applied  to  the  first  evangelist.  The  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee is  also  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth ;  Edom  and  Idumea  are 
the  same,  as  Horeb  and  Sinai  were  names  given  to  a  whole 
mountain  of  which  each  was  a  peak.  Where  double  names 
were  not  employed,  as  with  us,  the  recurrence  of  the  same 
names  must  be  frequent,  especially  when  the  official  titles, 
as  in  so  many  instances,  absorbed  the  personal  name,  as  in 
the  Pharaohs,  Abimelechs,  Agags,  which  corresponded  to 
the  "Caesars"  of  later  Rome. 

As  in  our  land  the  same  name  is  often  repeated  to  de- 
scribe places  (as  Washington,  Springfield),  so  it  is  with 
Antioch,  Csesarea,  Bethlehem,  Mizpah  and  other  places. 

Plainly,  a  careful  consideration  of  peculiarities  of  this  na- 
ture is  a  help  to  the  understanding  of  the  word,  which  was 
natural  in  its  style  to  those  who  wrote  and  received  it. 

Some  idea  of  their  land  is  a  help  to  understanding  their 
Scriptures.  Jerusalem  has  a  crown  of  hills  called  moun- 
tains round  about  its  own  plateau,  well  representing  the 
care  of  the  Lord  round  about  his  people.  In  a  hot  climate 
the  "  shadow  of  a  great  rock"  is  easily  understood.  Where 
water  is  less  abundant  than  with  us,  the  digging  of  wells  is 
a  matter  of  great  moment  and  their  possession  a  cause  of 


62  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

war.  In  such  a  land  the  dew  is  so  needful  to  vegetation 
that  it  may  well  stand  for  God's  blessing :  "  I  will  be  as  the 
dew  upon  Israel."  When  Lebanon  with  its  cedars  was  so 
striking  a  natural  object  to  the  people,  we  need  not  wonder 
at  allusions  to  it.  Thunder  and  rain  in  wheat  harvest  are 
only  wonderful  to  us  (1  Sam.  xii.  16,  17)  when  we  know 
the  kind  of  v/eather  that  prevailed  at  that  time,  just  as  a 
knowledge  of  rainless  Egypt  enables  us  to  understand  the 
startling  effect  of  a  grievous  hail  over  all  the  land  except 
Goshen.  So  in  another  department  the  eagle,  the  lion,  the 
hind,  the  dove,  the  sheep,  and  in  yet  another  the  fig,  the 
palm,  the  cedar,  furnish  illustrations.  Some  acquaintance, 
therefore,  with  the  natural  history  of  Palestine,  such  as  nu- 
merous excellent  books  now  furnish,  is  a  help  to  under- 
standing the  word. 

The  names  applied  to  other  lands  and  nations  by  the  He- 
brews ought  to  be  understood,  if  we  would  not  be  involved 
in  perplexity.  The  regions  to  be  reached  by  water  the 
Hebrews  called  "isles,"  and  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
much  of  Asia  were  to  them  the  "  isles  of  the  Gentiles."  Yet 
while  there  was  apparent  inconsistency  in  their  language, 
its  peculiarities  had  a  historical  basis.  Alexander  the  Great 
having  overrun  the  East  and  made  Greek  power  felt  from 
his  time  onward,  civilized  peoples,  not  Jews,  are  called 
"Greeks,"  and  "Greek  and  Jew"  included  the  civilized 
world  as  distinguished  from  barbarian  and  Scythian.  So 
Hebrews,  who  lived  outside  Palestine  and  spoke  other  than 
the  Hebrew,  are  called  Grecians.  Asia  is  used  in  a  narrow 
sense  in  the  life  of  Paul,  and  this  may  easily  confuse  one 
who  forgets  it,  but  it  will  not  seem  strange  to  any  one  who 
remembers  the  freaks  of  language.  One  is  often  asked,  for 
example,  in  California,  when  he  came  from  "  the  States," 
as  though  California  Tvere  not  one  of  them.  An  old  name 
lingers  after  it  has  lost  its  distinctive  meaning.  Occasion- 
ally a  simple  fact  in  the  matter  of  place  throws  great  light 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY,  53 

on  an  allusion  or  an  incident.  For  example,  the  allusion 
to  a  "building  fitly  framed  together"  in  Eph.  ii.  21  is  sin- 
gularly apposite  in  all  the  letter  to  those  whose  eyes  must 
have  often  rested  on  the  architectural  grandeur  of  the  Tem- 
ple of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  are  de- 
scribed to  us  in  their  crimes  and  ruin  with  great  minuteness, 
not  only  because  of  Abraham  and  Lot  having  to  do  with 
them,  but  because  they  stood  in  the  very  midst  of  Canaan. 
With  the  monument  of  this  signal  judgment  before  them, 
Canaanites  and  Israelites  forgot  God  and  turned  to  idols. 

Geography  and  chronology  have  been  called  the  two  eyes 
of  history,  and  nowhere  is  a  little  knowledge  of  dates  more 
valuable  than  in  understanding  the  Bible.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon to  proceed  on  the  assumption  that  the  books  are  ranged 
in  the  order  of  time,  whereas  some  of  the  Psalms  are  concur- 
rent wdth  Samuel,  and  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  for  example,  come 
long  after  many  of  the  prophets,  such  as  Isaiah.  The  his- 
tory of  the  nations  of  the  earth  is  receiving  fresh  illustra- 
tions every  year  from  the  explorations  of  travelers  and  the 
researches  of  scholars,  and  the  results  are  being  presented 
in  forms  so  attractive  as  to  leave  us  without  excuse  if  we 
are  ill  informed  on  this  general  subject.  That  shepherds 
should  be  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians,  that  Nineveh 
should  be  described  as  a  city  of  three  days'  journey,  that 
Tyre,  Babylon  and  Idumea  should  be  represented  as  so 
wealthy,  that  Egypt  should  furnish  horses,  that  Athens 
should  be  described  as  wholly  given  to  idolatry,  that  such 
details  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  as  the  trench  cast  about 
the  city  should  find  a  place  in  our  Lord's  prophetic  word, — 
these  and  many  like  circumstances  in  the  word  are  no  sur- 
prise to  any  who  has  considerable  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  nations  contemporary  with  the  Hebrews. 

Of  the  value,  to  an  interpreter  of  the  word,  of  knowing 
the  customs  of  the  ancient  races,  one  has  not  need  to  speak. 

The  Scripture  is  full  of  life-like  pictures.     We  see  the  men 

6» 


54  PBEP.iRING   TO   TEACH. 

on  the  housetop ;  we  find  the  Saviour  sitting  by  the  well's 
mouth,  or  we  follow  him  to  the  new  tomb  hewn  out  of  the 
rock ;  we  picture  to  ourselves  his  seamless  robe ;  we  seem 
to  see  the  phylacteries  of  the  Pharisees  and  the  sandals  of 
the  disciples;  the  ''women  grinding  at  the  mill"  make  a 
picture  to  the  mind's  eye  as  vivid  and  distinct  as  the  "  ox 
treading  out  the  corn." 

Now,  it  may  be  said,  "Why  should  a  knowledge  of  all 
this  be  needed  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  word  ?"  Let 
it  be  remembered  that  knowledge  of  such  subjects  is  eagerly 
pursued  and  highly  valued  for  its  own  sake.  We  ought  to 
be  thankful  for  the  stimulus  to  the  acquisition  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  supplied  to  men  by  inquiries  of  this  kind. 
But  be  it  remembered  that  these  things,  to  understand 
which  we  must  take  some  pains,  are  among  the  evidences 
of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Scriptures.  The  water-mark  in 
a  forged  letter  has  been  unnoticed  by  the  forger,  and  be- 
come the  means  of  his  detection.  To  how  many  circum- 
stances does  the  Bible  commit  itself,  if  it  were  a  forgery, 
every  one  of  them  being  a  means  of  detection  and  exposure, 
in  geography,  in  history,  in  genealogy,  in  manners  and 
customs! 

But  why  should  we  complain  of  the  need  of  these  helps  ? 
Take  a  schoolboy's  Virgil  or  Sallust  and  examine  it. 
What  an  apparatus  of  notes  explanatory  of  construction, 
history,  mythology,  current  beliefs,  and  contemporary  events, 
it  needs !  and  before  he  can  begin  to  use  it,  he  must  have 
mastered  the  elements  of  his  Latin  grammar,  and  must,  be- 
sides, use  his  lexicon.  But  we  have  this  volume  "in  our 
own  tongue  wherein  we  were  born,"  with  its  blessed  and 
glorious  revelations  of  life  in  Christ  now  and  life  eternal 
beyond  the  grave.  Let  us  be  grateful  for  it,  and  gladly 
avail  ourselves  of  all  the  facilities  afforded  us  for  obtaining 
a  knowledge  of  its  meaning,  that  we  may  be  wise  unto  sal- 
vation. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISIIANITY.  55 

LESSO.Y  IX. 
TYPES  AND  SYMBOLS. 

It  is  obvious  to  any  reader  of  the  Bible  that  much  of  it 
departs  from  the  common  and  matter-of-fact  style,  and  that 
to  reach  the  meaning  of  such  parts  we  must  look  beneath 
the  surface.  In  ordinary  animated  writings  we  are  not  sur- 
prised by  the  use  of  figures.  We  expect  them  because  they 
add  strength  and  beauty  to  expression.  When,  in  1814, 
Daniel  Webster  said,  *'  Unclench  the  iron  grasp  of  your 
embargo,"  his  meaning  was  plain  enough,  and  a  few  words 
express  it  figuratively  with  far  more  force  than  if  he  had 
uttered  it  in  ordinary  terms.  He  employed  more  than  one 
comparison.  Embargo  was  like  a  hand — an  iron  hand — 
an  iron  hand  clenched.  We  have  a  great  profusion  of 
such  eloquent  figures  in  the  Scriptures.  Can  anything  be 
finer  than  "  the  Lord  rideth  upon  the  swift  cloud  "  (Isa.  xix. 
1),  "his  chariots  shall  be  as  a  whirlwind"  (Jer.  iv.  13), 
"  the  name  of  the  Lord  is  a  strong  tower  "  (Prov.  xviii.  10), 
or  more  expressive  than  likening  the  brief  noisy  mirth  of 
fools  to  the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a  pot?  Eccles.  vii.  6. 

But  there  is  a  mode  of  expression  throughout  Scripture 
essentially  different  from  the  merely  figurative,  and  in  which 
the  whole  object  presented,  no  matter  in  what  kind  of  lan- 
guage, is  intended  to  carry  the  mind  beyond  the  ideas 
presented  in  the  first  instance.  The  image  may  be  real, 
like  the  paschal  lamb  or  the  brazen  serpent,  or  it  may  be 
ideal,  like  the  living  creatures  of  Revelation  (iv.  8)  with 
six  wings,  but  in  both  cases  the  reader  looks  beyond  the 
image  to  something  of  which  it  is  the  shadow.  The  general 
terms  for  these  portions  of  the  divine  word  are  types  and 
symbols,  between  which,  for  practical  purposes,  there  is  no 
distinction. 

Why  should  these  be  employed  in  a  revelation  from  God  ? 


56  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Because,  in  the  first  place,  the  humau  mind  has  a  certain 
poetic  element  in  it  to  which  such  a  mode  of  representation 
appeals.  Strong  feeling,  especially  when  it  is  sympathetic, 
flows  naturally  into  the  poetic  form.  Battle  songs  and 
patriotic  songs  are  illustrations.  It  is  easy  to  see  for  how 
much,  for  example,  such  a  symbol  as  the  "Star-spangled 
Banner"  stands,  aud  how  natural  is  the  language  of  poetry 
in  connection  with  it.  The  Eastern  mind  carries  out  the 
comparison  to  great  lengths  in  a  way  not  common  among 
less  imaginative  nations,  though  not  without  parallel,  as  in 
the  allegory  of  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  or  the  story  of 
"  Mansoul." 

In  the  second  place,  it  is  the  object  of  that  portion  of 
Scripture  in  which  types  and  symbols  are  especially  found 
to  present  truths  in  outline  more  or  less  dim,  as  the  distant 
objects  before  a  traveler's  eye  only  acquire  clearness  and 
distinctness  as  they  are  immediately  approached.  There  is 
perspective  in  the  pictures  of  the  Bible,  as  in  the  objects  of 
nature  to  the  eye,  and  in  all  true  imitative  representations. 
All  the  true  objects  of  prophecy  are  served  on  this  plan, 
and  evils  inevitable  to  explicit  delineation  of  the  future  are 
avoided.  A  traveler  descending  the  Italian  side  of  the 
Alps  sees  the  smoke  and  general  outline  of  the  towui  where 
he  is  to  rest,  not  the  gates  or  the  name  of  the  street,  or  the 
place  at  which  he  is  to  stop.  But  he  sees  these  when  he 
comes  to  the  place  and  as  soon  as  the  knowledge  is  practical. 
So  it  is,  so  far,  with  the  purposes  of  prophecy.  That  a  de- 
liverer should  come,  for  example,  was  clear  from  the  begin- 
ning. The  details  of  his  work  are  made  to  stand  out  clearly 
as  men  drew  near  the  time. 

In  the  third  place,  the  mode  of  giving  divine  revelation — 
namely,  by  visions — rendered  the  use  of  object-teachiug — 
that  is,  of  types  and  symbols — inevitable.  Before  the  mind's 
eye  the  embodied  truths  to  be  declared  passed  in  review,  the 
prophet's  function  being  to  describe  what  he  saw  in  vision. 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  57 

As  a  help  to  the  interpretation  of  types  and  symbols  we 
shall  mention  some  of  their  characteristics.  1.  They  are 
suggested  by  something  in  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  employed.  Hence  they  have  a  naturalness  in  their 
original  connection,  and  on  this  very  account  a  certain  fit- 
ness which  we  fail  to  see  until  we  have  placed  ourselves  in 
some  degree  in  the  circumstances.  The  first  type  of  Scrip- 
ture is  an  example.  In  the  form  of  a  serpent  Satan  temi)ted 
Eve.  The  word  of  God,  "it  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and 
thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel "  (Gen.  iii.  15),  has  obvious  fitness 
and  propriety  when  uttered  to  the  tempter  in  the  serpent 
form  and  in  the  presence  of  the  wife  of  Adam.  So  the 
wants  of  Israel  made  manna  needful,  and  the  serpents  that 
*  bit  the  people  suggest  the  serpent  of  brass  to  which  they 
are  to  look  for  healing.  Out  of  both  grow  symbols,  the  full 
meaning  and  significance  of  which  we  have  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  same  is  true  of  the  smitten  rock.  It  is  con- 
ceivable that  the  Lord  could  have  provided  supplies  for  the 
people  in  other  ways,  but  these  are  chosen,  no  doubt,  that 
they  might  be  in  Israel  and  among  all  men  to  the  end  of 
time,  object-lessons  for  God's  children.  Why  should  this 
seem  to  us  like  cumbrous  preparation  for  the  future  ?  Fu- 
ture is  a  relative  term  to  us.  There  is  no  future  to  Him 
who  fills  all  time.  Men  count  it  a  proof  of  divine  fore- 
thought that  coal  should  be  prepared  and  laid  up  in  the 
earth  for  a  race  far  in  the  distance.  But  the  material  is 
mainly  for  the  sake  of  the  moral  and  spiritual;  and  we 
should  not  wonder  that  the  divine  Teacher  shapes  the  expe- 
riences of  the  Church  in  her  infancy  so  as  to  render  them 
profitable  studies  and  memories  for  all  her  life. 

2.  Our  authority  for  finding  types  in  persons  or  in  acts 
must  be  the  Scripture  itself  An  ingenious  fancy  may 
easily  discover  remarkable  resemblances  between  remote 
events,  as  in  the  history  of  Joseph  and  that  of  Jesus  Christ; 
but  we  can  only  build  upon  any  such  correspondence  as 


58  PEEP  A  RING    TO   TEj^CH. 

typical  when  it  is  so  declared  in  Scripture.  The  resem- 
blance we  discover  may  be  eminently  suggestive  and  useful 
as  an  illustration  of  truth  ;  but  when  we  call  anything  a 
scriptural  type,  we  assume  its  being  so  intended  by  Him 
who  gave  the  holy  oracles,  and  we  can  only  know  his  inten- 
tions by  his  declarations. 

Nor  must  we  strain  a  typical  element  in  a  man,  an  ob- 
je(;t,  or  an  event  beyond  the  use  made  of  it  in  Scripture. 
The  first  Adam,  for  example,  stands  over  against  Jesus  in 
that  the  one  is  the  head  of  the  natural,  and  the  other  of  the 
spiritual,  family  (1  Cor.  xv.  22) ;  but  it  would  be  obviously 
violent  and  unauthorized  to  draw  the  parallel  between  them 
as  to  moral  character,  or  even  nature. 

Melchizedek,  the  object  of  so  much  speculation,  had  a 
natural  fitness  for  typifying  the  royal  priest,  Jesus  Christ. 
Ps.  ex.  4.  We  should  not  have  been  warranted  in  inferring 
from  Abraham's  paying  tithes  to  him  the  superiority  of 
Christ's  priesthood  to  Aaron's,  if  the  apostle  Paul,  writing 
to  a  race  who  could  appreciate  such  considerations  (Heb. 
vii.  2),  had  not  given  authority.  When  the  apostle  to  the 
Galatians  (iv.  22)  says  that  the  early  notices  of  Abraham's 
two  sons  are  "an  allegory,"  it  is  not  meant  that  they  are 
imagined  or  figured,  as  in  a  parable,  for  the  sake  of  a  moral 
truth,  but  that  they  have  a  sacred  and  deeper  meaning, 
"  which  things  are  allegorized."  When  one  considers  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  typical  objects  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  remembers  that  they  find  their  antitypes  in  the 
New,  and  that  they  who  bore  a  share  in  the  preparing  of 
them,  acting  of  their  own  motive,  were  ignorant  of  what 
was  to  come  after,  we  have  a  singular  demonstration  of  the 
unity  and  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Scriptures,  of  ex- 
actly the  same  nature  as  is  presented  by  prophecy  and  its 
fulfillment.  It  would  be  much  easier  to  believe  that  corn 
was  made  or  that  the  coal  which  serves  so  many  and  varied 
purposes  was  stored  away  without  any  regard  to  man  than 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  59 

to  believe  that  the  whole  Jewish  system  was  formed  without 
regard  to  Jesus  and  his  kingdom. 

8.  Where  the  prophets  are  directed  to  speak  by  types  and 
symbols  and  similitudes  (Hos.  xii.  10),  we  may  usually  lock 
for  some  correspondence  between  them  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  messengers  whom  God  employs,  or  of  those 
to  whom  the  message  is  delivered.  To  David,  who  had 
been  a  shepherd,  and  by  no  means  a  rich  one  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
28),  Nathan's  parable  of  the  one  ewe  lamb  had  a  point 
which  we  can  easily  appreciate.  What  is  true  of  parables, 
and  in  an  eminent  degree  of  our  Lord's,  is  applicable  to  the 
sustained  symbols  of  the  prophets.  Ezekiel  is  a  priest  (i. 
3)  and  in  captivity.  How  many  patriotic  memories  and 
dreams  he  must  have  had  regarding  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem!  He  reports  the  glorious  future  of  the  truth  by  the 
prolonged  symbolism  of  a  reconstructed  yet  ideal  temple 
with  healing  waters  flowing  from  its  threshold.  See  Ezek. 
xl.-xlvii.,  and  xlvii.  9.  On  the  other  hand,  Daniel  w^as 
of  royal  family  (i.  3),  and  all  his  life  in  courts,  and  his  pre- 
dictions are  throw^n  into  the  form  of  successive  monarchies. 
So  Haggai,  intent  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  makes 
the  enterprise  of  Zerubbabel  to  foreshadow'  the  triumphs  of 
Messiah,  even  as  Zechariah  sees  in  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel 
the  "  priest  upon  his  throne  "  and  the  covenant  of  peace  out 
of  which  comes  salvation  to  the  true  Israel. 

4.  A  certain  unity  runs  through  the  types  of  the  Bible 
w'hich,  once  perceived,  puts  away  the  unsatisfactory  look  of 
vagueness  and  arbitrariness  which,  it  is  to  be  feared,  they 
wear  to  many,  and  which  is  extremely  discouraging  to  an 
inquirer.  The  best  way  in  which  to  get  rid  of  this  look  of 
vagueness  and  arbitrariness  is  to  study  them.  You  enter  a 
watchmaker's  while  he  is  pursuing  his  w^ork.  On  his  board 
you  see  a  confused  little  heap,  in  apparent  disorder,  of 
springs,  brass  wheels,  circular  boxes,  and  perforated  plates. 
To  your  eye  they  are  chaotic.     His  sees  the  place  and  use 


60  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

and  fitness  of  every  one  of  them.     It  is  so  with  these  types 
to  the  trained  student  of  God's  word. 

Take  as  an  example  the  serpent  of  the  temptation,  in 
Genesis  iii.  1.  In  Isaiah  the  prosperous  times  of  Messiah's 
reign  are  predicted,  and  the  serpent  has  no  power  to  hurt : 
"  The  child  shall  play  on  the  hole  of  the  asp,  and  the  weaned 
child  on  the  cockatrice'  den."  Isa.  i.  8,  9.  Dust  was  to  be  the 
loathsome  diet  of  the  serpent  in  Gen.  iii.  14 ;  and  in  Isa.  Ixv. 
25,  when  the  lion  eats  straw  like  the  bullock,  ''  dust  shall 
be  the  serpent's  meat."  Is  it  possible  to  forget  in  the  allu- 
sion of  the  second  text  the  threat  of  the  first  ?  Now  look 
to  the  close  of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  Rev.  xx.  2,  3,  we 
have  the  "  old  serpent  cast  out,"  his  power  brought  to  an 
end,  his  head  bruised. 

Take  another  case  from  the  symbol  of  fire.  When  Abra- 
ham was  taken  into  covenant  with  God  (Gen.  xv.  17),  a 
"  smoking  furnace  and  a  burning  lamp  passed  between 
the  pieces."  When  Moses  received  his  commission  (Ex.  iii. 
2)  from  a  present  God,  behold,  the  bush  to  which  he  may 
not  come  too  near  "  burned  with  fire."  The  Lord  descended 
upon  Mount  Sinai  "in  fire."  Ex.  xix.  18.  In  the  pillar  of 
cloud  and  fire  the  Lord  led  the  people.  It  stood  over  the 
tabernacle.  Num.  ix.  16.  Fire  from  the  Lord  consumed 
Nadab  and  Abihu.  Lev.  x.  2.  This  great  fire  the  Hebrews 
feared  to  look  on.  Deut.  xviii.  16.  Fire  rose  out  of  the 
rock  and  consumed  Manoah's  sacrifice  (Jud.  vi.  21),  as  it 
did  Elijah's.  1  Kings  xviii.  38.  "A  fire  enfolding  itself" 
appeared  to  Ezekiel.  i.  4.  The  Messiah  baptizes  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire.  Matt.  iii.  11.  On  the  disciples 
at  Pentecost  rest  "cloven  tongues  as  of  fire"  (Acts  ii.  3); 
and  in  Heb.  xii.  19  "our  God  is  a  consuming  fire."  How 
is  it  possible  to  miss  the  continuity  of  this  symbol  of  the 
searching,  purifying,  enlightening  and,  when  need  is,  con- 
suming presence  and  power  of  the  Almighty? 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  add  to  these  examples  did  our 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  61 

space  permit.  One  can  see  how  much  authority  there  is,  if 
not  for  constructing  a  dictionary  of  types,  at  least  for  ap- 
proximately estimating  their  meaning. 

"  As  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  an  alphabet  of  the 
apocalypse  might  be  made  out,  we  may  instance  a  few  of  its 
more  important  symbols  Earth  symbolizes  society  in  a 
settled  state ;  sea,  society  in  a  state  of  convulsion ;  rivers, 
nations ;  a  flood,  nations  in  motion  ;  mountains  and  islands, 
great  and  small  kingdoms ;  air,  the  political  atmosj^here ; 
heaven,  the  civil  or  ecclesiastical  firmament;  lord,  the  mon- 
arch ;  slaves,  inferior  rulers;  hail  and  thunder,  wars;  earth- 
quake, revolution ;  head,  form  of  government ;  horse,  king 
or  kingdom;  bow,  war;  crown,  victory;  altar,  martyrdom; 
coals,  severe  judgment;  vine,  a  church;  wilderness,  a  state 
of  affliction ;  rainbow,  a  covenant ;  key,  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority; angel,  a  minister  of  God's  purposes.  Having 
determined  the  import  of  the  individual  symbols,  it  becomes 
easy  to  interpret  them  when  found  in  combination."  We 
do  not  present  the  foregoing  as  certainly  determined,  but  as 
showing  the  general  principle  on  which  types  and  symbols 
can  be  classified  and  defined. 


LESSOJY  X 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  SCRIPTURE,  AND  HOW  TO  DEAL 

WITH  THEM. 

Suppose  a  mechanic  to  be  required  to  construct  a  cylin- 
der printing-press,  or  an  optician  a  microscope  which  should 
serve  the  highest  purposes  of  such  complicated  and  delicate 
instruments,  and  at  the  same  time  be  perfectly  obvious  and 
without  difficulties  to  a  child.  Suppose  a  political  econo- 
mist directed  to  prepare  a  book  which  should  deal  with  all 
the  intricacies  of  trade,  commerce   and   currency,  which 

6 


62  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

should  suit  all  the  purposes  of  this  nation,  and  yet  be  level 
to  the  capacity  of  all  the  school-children  in  the  United 
States.  Suppose  Sir  Isaac  Newton  had  been  required  to 
put  his  "Principia"  into  such  a  form  that  while  all  future 
students  in  astronomical  science  should  find  it  an  invalu- 
able help,  yet  the  lowest  intellect  could  at  once  see  through 
its  demonstrations.  Surely  the  engineer,  optician,  econo- 
mist and  mathematican  might,  with  good  reason,  reply.  You 
require  what  is  impossible  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  Our 
work,  if  it  is  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  more  advanced,  can- 
not but  present  some  difficulties  which  the  less  advanced 
must  labor  to  overcome. 

All  candid  persons  would  feel  the  force  of  such  replies 
when  the  communication  is  between  man  and  man.  Now, 
there  ought  to  be  equal  candor  in  judging  when  it  is  be- 
tween God  and  man.  The  infinite  Father  of  lights  is  to 
give  man  a  book-revelation  that  is  to  suit  all  lands,  all 
times,  all  orders  of  intellect.  It  would  be  unreasonable  to 
insist  that  it  should  be  so  constituted  as  to  make  no  demand 
on  the  study,  care  and  candor  of  its  readers,  especially  when 
it  is  itself  a  part  of  a  moral  discipline  by  which  moral 
agents  are  being  trained  for  immortal  life  and  perfect 
virtue. 

To  offer  some  suggestions  regarding  the  difficulties  of 
Scripture  rather  than  to  make  any  formal  and  detailed 
statement  of  them  is  the  design  of  this  chapter.  They 
arise  mainly  (a)  from  the  nature  and  subjects  of  revela- 
tion itself,  (6)'  from  the  manner  in  which  the  revelation  is 
given  in  a  book,  and  (c)  from  the  contingencies  to  which  it 
has  pleased  God  the  book  should  be  exposed.  To  require 
that  there  should  be  no  difficulties  in  the  substance  of  a 
revelation  to  man  is  to  require  some  essential  alteration  of 
the  relations  of  God  and  man,  and  would  be  as  unreason- 
able as  to  demand  that  the  conduct  and  commands  of  a 
parent  should  always  be  without  difficulties  to  his  infant 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  63 

child.  To  require  that  there  should  be  no  difficulties  in  a 
divine  book  is  as  unreasonable  as  to  require  that  there 
should  be  no  study  needed  to  master  the  laws  of  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  language  or  any  divine  work.  And  to  demand 
that,  the  book  being  in  the  world,  the  Lord  should  keep  it 
from  the  ordinary  accidents  to  which  copying,  translating 
and  printing  expose  any  book,  is  to  demand  a  constant 
series  of  miracles  that  would  relieve  man  of  a  responsibil- 
ity which  it  is  best  for  him  to  realize.  No  one,  therefore, 
has  any  right  to  feel  that  the  very  existence  of  difficulties 
is  a  presumption  against  the  Revelation.  The  presumption 
is  all  the  other  way.  It  would  be  hard  to  show  that  a  work 
every  part  of  which  was  on  the  level  of  the  lowest  human 
intellect  without  effi)rt  on  its  part  had  a  superhuman  origin. 

I.  There  are  difficulties  in  doctrine  where  it  is  conceded 
that  the  meaning  of  the  language  is  understood,  but  the 
ideas  conveyed  are  supposed  incredible.  That  there  are 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead ;  that  man  is  depraved  ;  that 
man  is  not  saved  by  any  works  of  his  own,  yet  that  he  is 
to  abound  in  good  works ;  that  he  must  be  born  again ;  that 
the  ruin  of  the  lost  is  eternal ;  that  the  Lord  has  often 
worked  miracles;  and  other  doctrines  are  of  this  class. 
They  are  commonly  dealt  with  in  books  on  doctrine  and  in 
systems  of  theology.  Two  things  have  to  be  borne  in  mind 
in  connection  with  them  : 

(a)  Facts  may  be  stated  and  believed  where  the  manner 
of  the  facts  is  hidden.  We  see  in  the  baptism  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  the  fact  of  three  divine  persons  in  the  mystery  of 
Godhead,  the  Father  speaking,  the  Spirit  descending  on  the 
beloved  Son.  But  how  the  three  co-exist  in  one  God  we 
do  not  pretend  to  know.  Nor  is  our  ignorance  of  the  mode 
a  barrier  to  our  belief  of  the  fact  any  more  than  our  ignor- 
ance of  the  mode  in  which  our  human  spirits  and  our  hu- 
man bodies  co-exist  prevents  us  believing  the  fact.  How 
disembodied  spirits  live,  how  a  divine  spirit  acts  on  matter, 


64  PBEPABINO   TO   TEACH. 

how  God  is  everlasting,  how  resurrection  is  to  be  effected, 
we  know  not,  and  have  no  hope  of  knowing,  at  least  here, 
but  in  the  facts  we  do  not  hesitate  to  believe.  A  child  can- 
not explain  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  but  he  can  believe  it,  for 
he  sees  it. 

(6)  A  statement  or  an  alleged  fact  may  be  above  reason, 
and  yet  not  contrary  to  it,  just  as  truly  as  the  pigeons  and 
sparrows  can  fly  down  the  avenue  without  collision  with  the 
carriages  or  the  passengers  moving  upward. 

That  Jesus  should  call  Lazarus'  spirit  back  to  his  body 
aftfer  death  is  above  any  reason.  To  say  it  is  contrary  to  it 
is  to  say  that  my  reason  has  gone  into  that  region  either  by 
observation  or  experience,  and  knows  all  the  facts.  It  has 
not  done  so ;  it  knows  nothing  about  it  but  as  it  is  in- 
structed. We  have  observed  how  certain  created  powers, 
even,  for  example,  how  death  commonly  works.  To  see 
death  conquered  and  the  dead  live  again,  therefore,  sur- 
prises us.  Hence  miracles  are  "  wonders."  But  we  have 
not  seen  how  infinite  power  works  in  the  unseen  world,  and 
therefore  have  no  settled  knowledge  on  the  subject. 

II.  The  book  being  in  our  hands,  difficulties  may  occur 
to  us  from  many  causes,  of  which  the  reason  lies  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  book.  Of  these  a  few  may  be  mentioned  as 
illustrations. 

(a)  The  same  series  of  facts  being  the  subject  of  several 
writers  with  distinct  objects,  one  may  give  what  another 
leaves  out,  and  the  omission  may  seem  to  be  contradiction, 
but  it  is  so  only  in  appearance.  The  design  of  the  writer 
determines  the  selection  of  his  facts,  as  in  the  books  of 
Samuel  and  Chronicles  and  in  the  Gospels.  This  class  of 
difficulties  has  been  fully  dealt  with  in  various  works  com- 
monly known  as  "Harmonies."  While,  as  in  all  similar 
works,  there  are  diverse  solutions,  that  any  solution  can  be 
given  is  a  sufficient  defence  of  a  treatise  otherwise  bearing 
marks  of  veracity,  as  in  the  genealogies  of  our  Lord,  where 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  65 

one  evangelist  traces  the  line  through  the  real  mother,  an- 
other through  the  legal  father,  the  one  writing  for  Jews  and 
the  other  for  Gentiles. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  seeming  discrepancy 
between  Paul  and  James  regarding  justification.  Paul  is 
dealing  with  the  tendency  of  the  natural  heart  to  make 
every  man  his  own  Saviour;  James  is  dealing  with  the 
abusers  of  grace,  who  "said  I  am  saved  by  faith  and 
may  live  as  I  please."  They  have  been  compared  to  two 
friends  attacked  before  and  behind,  and  who  for  defence 
turn  "  back  to  back,"  one  to  parry  the  blows  of  self-right- 
eousness, the  other  of  licentiousness.  This  surely  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  contention  between  themselves  or  strik- 
ing at  one  another.  You  are  to  be  saved,  says  Paul,  by 
faith  alone ;  but,  adds  James,  the  faith  which  is  alone  and 
without  good  works  is  not  faith  of  the  living,  saving  kind. 
An  almost  parallel  case  is  found  in  the  apparently  opposite 
directions  for  answering  a  fool  in  Prov.  xxvi.  4  and  5.  Two 
kinds  of  "  fools  "  are  contemplated. 

(6)  Difficulties  arise  from  inaccurate  construction  of  the 
words,  as  in  Judg.  i.  19,  where  Voltaire  found  matter  for 
scoffing  in  the  supposed  inability  of  the  Lord  to  drive  out  the 
inhabitants  of  the  valley  because  they  had  chariots  of  iron. 
He  did  not  see  that  Judah,  and  not  the  Lord,  is  the  ante- 
cedent to  "  he,"  and  that  the  real  trouble  lay  in  the  defect- 
ive faith  of  Judah,  not  in  the  defensive  power  of  the  Al- 
mighty. So  obvious  is  this  now  that  later  commentators 
never  notice  the  original  objection,  but  lay  out  their  strength 
on  the  terrible  scythe-chariots,  adapted  to  valley  warfare, 
and  which  appear  too  formidable  to  the  Hebrews  to  admit 
of  assault. 

(c)  Difficulties  may  arise  from  ignorance  of  usages  of 

languages,  as  when,  in  Acts  i.  18,  Judas  is  said  to  have 

bought  a  field  which  Matt,  xxvii.  7  says  the  chief  priests 

bought-     It  was  with  the  ill-earned   money  of  Judas  the 
6» 


66  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

purchase  was  made.  Men  are  said  to  do  that  of  which  they 
are  the  cause,  as  Jesus  baptized  by  his  disciples,  or  the  oc- 
casion, or  which  they  claim  to  do,  as  the  magicians  are  said 
to  have  made  blood  (Ex.  vii.  22)  with  their  enchantments 
— that  is,  they  claimed  and  appeared  to  do  it. 

III.  Difficulties  are  produced  by  undoubted  errors  in 
transcription  in  a  way  that  is  easily  understood.  Many  of 
these  errors  are  now  rectified  by  collation  of  manuscripts 
and  of  kindred  passages;  and  the  number  of  ambiguous 
portions  is  now  not  only  small  relatively  to  the  whole  vol- 
ume, but  there  is  not  one  of  them  involving  any  article  of 
faith,  so  that  it  would  be  put  in  doubt  by  the  discrediting 
of  the  passage.  The  chief  of  these  supposed  errors  are  in 
the  matter  of  numbers.  The  very  earliest  Hebrews,  it  is  al- 
leged, employed  sign-letters,  as  we  do  figures  and  Roman 
letters,  for  numbers ;  and  where  letters  were  nearly  alike  in 
form  or  their  significance  was  varied  by  points,  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  errors  could  occur  in  course  of  transcription;  These 
errors  are  mostly  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  Bible ;  and  as 
a  general  rule,  the  numbers  are  exaggerated.  The  slain  at 
Beth-shemesh,  for  example  (in  1  Sam.  vi.  19),  are  made  to 
be  fifty  thousand  and  seventy.  In  the  Arabic  and  Syriac 
the  number  is  five  thousand  and  seventy.  Several  manu- 
scripts support  Josephus  in  reading  this  seventy  and  omit- 
ting the  thousands ;  and  considering  that  this  was  a  country 
village,  it  is  the  more  likely  number.  Sometimes  a  sacred 
writer  speaks  in  round  numbers,  while  another  is  exact  in 
the  reckoning,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wandering  and  enslave- 
ment of  the  Israelites  for  four  hundred  or  four  hundred  and 
thirty  years.  Sometimes  numbers  are  given  inclusively,  as 
we  do,  and  sometimes  exclusively.  An  event  may  be  on 
the  eighth  day  from  this  inclusively ;  but  excluding  this  day 
and  the  day  on  which  it  occurs,  it  will  be  only  six  days 
from  this  day.  We  find  a  variation  in  the  Gospels  of  this 
nature.     In  Matt.  xvii.  1  we  find  "  after  six  days."     So  it 


EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  67 

is  in  Mark  ix.  2,  but  Luke  (ix.  28)  reads  "  about  an  eight 
days  after."  Such  seeming  discrepancies  as  these  are  usually 
explained  in  ordinary  books,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
no  discomfort  in  candid  minds. 

There  is  little  use  in  recommending  books  on  the  subject 
of  these  difficulties.  Those  which  one  finds  discussed  in 
older  text-books,  like  "  Home's  Introduction,"  are  rarely 
urged  now.  He  devotes  a  section  to  alleged  Bible  contra- 
dictions to  morality.  Most  infidel  writers  now  admit  and 
magnify  the  morality,  but  deny  the  miraculous  element,  of 
the  Scripture.  The  difficulties  that  lie  outside  the  classes 
we  have  enumerated  are  usually  only  difficulties  to  ignor- 
ance, and  the  power  to  deal  with  them  is  acquired  by 
devout  study  of  the  word  as  a  whole. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES. 


I.  SACEED  PLACES. 
11.  SACEED  PEESONS. 

III.  SACEED  EITES. 

IV.  SACEED  TIMES. 


BY  THE 

REV.  EDWARD  P.  HUMPHREY,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


The  Tabernacle,  with  its  Coverings  mostly  removed. 


Page  71. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES. 


LESSOJf  L 
THE  CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES  DISTRIBUTED. 

They  Daturally  divide  themselves  into  four  particulars : 
I.  Sacred  Places.  II.  Sacred  Persons.  III.  Sacred  Rites. 
IV.  Sacred  Times. 

Their  Historical  Origin. — The  altar  was  the  basis  of 
the  sacred  places,  the  priesthood  was  the  basis  of  the  sacred 
persons,  the  burnt-offering  was  the  basis  of  the  sacred  rites^ 
and  the  Sabbath  was  the  basis  of  the  sacred  times.  Here 
we  discover  the  links  that  connect  the  ceremonial  laws 
given  by  Moses  with  the  primeval  ordinances  of  religion. 

In  the  altar  set  up  in  the  family  of  Adam  we  have  the 
genesis  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple.  At  the  beginning 
the  minister  of  sacrifice  was  the  patriarch  of  the  existing 
family,  and  his  sacred  office  passed  over  to  the  Mosaic 
priesthood.  In  the  offering  of  blood  by  Abel  and  the 
offering  by  fire  of  Noah  we  discover  the  germs  of  the 
Jewish  ritual.  The  Sabbath  ordained  in  paradise  became 
the  central  institute  in  the  sacred  times  appointed  by  Moses. 
These  facts  show — (1.)  That  the  religious  institutes  of  the 
Hebrews  had  their  roots  in  the  ordinances  which  God  gave 
to  the  human  race  in  the  primeval  age ;  (2.)  The  organic 
unity  of  the  Pentateuch  considered  as  a  history;  (3.)  The 
position  of  the  book  of  Genesis  as  an  introduction  to  the 
laws  given  from  Sinai ;  (4.)  The  gradual  development  of 
the  Church  and  its  ordinances  of  worship  from  the  begin- 

71 


72  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

ning;  (5.)  The  ceremonial  law  was  not  wholly  a  new  thing 
to  the  children  of  Israel.  They  learned  from  the  book  of 
Genesis  that  God  was  proposing  no  principles  regulating 
divine  worship  which  were  not  laid  in  the  early  history  of 
redemption ;  (6.)  Atonement  for  sin  by  the  shedding  of 
blood,  which  was  taught  at  the  altars  of  both  Cain  and 
Abel,  was  the  predominant  idea  in  every  section  of  the 
ceremonial  law. 

Sacred  Places. 

Designations. — The  place  of  worship  was — (1.)  The 
Tabernacle,  from  the  giving  of  the  law  until  about  the 
tenth  year  of  Solomon's  reign — five  hundred  years ;  (2.) 
Solomon's  temple,  until  the  Babylonish  captivity — about 
four  hundred  and  seventeen  years ;  (3.)  Zerubbabel's  tem- 
ple, built  after  the  return  from  the  captivity  (about  B.  C. 
520).  This  stood  till  it  was  removed  or  rebuilt  by  Herod 
(B.  C.  8),  or  about  five  hundred  and  twelve  years.  (4.) 
Herod's  Temple,  from  about  8  B.  C.,>h*  till  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70,  or  seventy-eight  years. 

SECTION  I. 
THE  TABERNACLE. 

1.  The  Plan  and  Specifications,  down  to  the  minutest 
particular,  even  the  hooks  and  pins  and  shovels  and  snuff- 
ers, were  prescribed  by  God  himself,  and  are  preserved  in 
chapters  xxxvi.  to  xxxix.  of  Exodus.  Next,  God  gave  to 
Moses  in  the  mount  a  pattern  of  the  house  and  its  furniture. 
Ex.  XXV.  9  ;  xxvi.  30 ;  Heb.  viii.  5.  This  was  probably 
an  ideal  pattern  only,  such  as  an  architect  forms  in  his 
own  mind  of  a  building  to  be  erected.  When  the  house 
was  finished,  Moses  examined  it  thoroughly  to  see  if  it  was 
exactly  conformed  to  God's  command.  Ex.  xxxix.  33-43. 

2.  The  Architects  were  appointed  and  taught  to  ex- 
ecute the  divine  plan  and  specifications.     God  called  by 


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Page  73. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  73 

name  to  this  service  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab,  and  endowed 
them  with  supernatural  gifts  in  architecture  and  the  orna- 
mental and  curious  arts.  Ex.  xxxi.  1-11 ;  xxxv.  30-35 ; 
xxxvi.  1,  2.  The  gift  of  God's  Spirit  qualified  these  men 
simply  for  the  work  of  rearing  and  furnishing  the  taber- 
nacle. .  It  was  not  an  inspiration  for  any  other  purpose,  nor 
did  it  necessarily  convey  to  them  personal  holiness. 

The  lessons  taught  here  are — (1.)  The  extraordinary  care 
which  God  took  to  secure  a  suitable  place  of  worship,  free 
from  incongruities  and  wholly  unlike  the  idol  temples  of 
Egypt;  (2.)  The  supreme  skill  which  appeared  in  the 
ornamental  work  about  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture 
and  the  sacred  vestments  of  the  priests  is  to  be  referred  to 
the  supernatural  endowments  of  the  artists.  The  rough, 
coarse  work  of  Egypt  in  brick  and  mortar  had  disqualified 
the  people  for  the  curious  arts  of  jewelry  and  embroidery 
and  carving,  which  were  now  called  into  requisition. 

The  materials  were  derived  from — (1.)  The  atonement 
money  of  half  a  shekel  levied  on  all  the  males  that  left 
Egypt  (Ex.  xxx.  12-15) ;  (2.)  The  voluntary  contributions 
of  the  people.  Ex.  xxxv.  4,  seq.  These  riches  became  so 
embarrassing  to  Moses  that  he  issued  an  order  "  restraining 
the  people  from  bringing."  Ex.  xxxvi.  6.  The  house  when 
finished  was  loaded  down  with  gold  and  silver  and  pre- 
cious stones ;  it  loas  not  loaded  down  ivith  debt.  (3.)  When 
the  people  left  Egypt,  they  took  spoils  from  their  task-mas- 
ters, "jewels  of  silver  and  jewels  of  gold,  and  raiment." 
Ex.  xii.  35.  The  value  of  the  house  and  furniture  has 
been  estimated  at  $1,500,000. 

The  Structure  of  the  Tabernacle. 

The  relation  of  the  tabernacle  proper  to  the  "  court  of 
the  tabernacle,"  by  which  it  was  surrounded,  will  be  under- 
stood by  a  reference  to  the  engraving  of  the  ground  plan  of 
the  tabernacle  and  its  courts.    Fo   a  description  of  the  fence 
7 


74  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

of  curtains  which  formed  the  enclosure,  with  its  supports, 
see  Exodus  xxvii.  9-18. 

The  Tabernacle,  in  its  structure,  is  illustrated  by  the 
engraving  given  at  a  preceding  page,  in  which  the  coverings 
are  represented  as  almost  entirely  removed.  The  description 
is  given  in  Exodus.  1.  Base  course  of  silver  sockets.  Ex.  xxvi. 
19.  2.  Boards  of  shittim-wood  standing  upright,  xxvi.  15-19. 
3.  Kings  inserted  in  the  boards  and  rods  or  bars  running 
through  the  rings,  xxvi.  26-29.  Five  pillars  stood  at  the 
entrance,  xxvi.  37.  The  under  curtain  was  of  fine  linen 
(xxvi.  1-6),  the  next  of  goats'  hair  (v.  7  and  9),  the  next 
of  rams'  skin  (v.  14),  and  the  outer  covering  was  of  badgers' 
skin.  V.  14. 

Furniture  of  the  Tabernacle. 

1.  In  the  fore  court.  The  brazen  altar  for  burnt-offering. 
Ex.  xxvii.  1-8.     The  laver  of  brass.  Ex.  xxx.  18. 

2.  In  the  holy  place.  Golden  altar  of  incense.  Ex.  xxx. 
1-10.  Table  of  show-bread.  Ex.  xxv.  23,  sq.  Golden 
candlestick.  Ex.  xxv.  31,  sq. 

3.  In  the  most  holy  place.  Ark  of  the  covenant,  its 
golden  lid  the  mercy-seat ;  above  that  the  cherubim  (Ex. 
xxv.  10,  sq.;  Ex.  xxxvii.  1-9);  between  the  cherubim  the 
Shekinah  or  dwelling-place  of  Jehovah.  Ex.  xxv.  18-22 ; 
xxxvii.  6-9.  Within  the  ark  of  the  covenant  were  de- 
posited the  two  tables  of  the  law,  a  pot  of  manna,  Aaron's 
rod  that  budded  and  the  book  of  the  law.  Ex.  xvi.  33-34 ; 
xxv.  16;  Num.  xvii.  10;  Deut.  xxxi.  26;  Heb.  ix.  4. 

The  Tabernacle  as  a  Whole. 

1.  It  was  a  tent  in  the  midst  of  the  tents  of  Israel  while 
they  dwelt  in  the  wilderness.  That  was  the  fundamental 
idea  of  the  structure,  and  controlled  in  part  its  size,  shape 
and  position  in  the  encampments  and  marches. 

2.  It  was  portable.    The  curtains  could  be  easily  removed 


The  Brazen  Altar.    For  Burnt  OflFerings. 


The  Golden  Candlestick. 


.   „,\.v<'i'; 


The  Altar  of  Incense  and  a  Roman  Altar. 


The  Table  of  Shew  Bread. 


FURNITURE  OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 


Page  74. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  75 

and  folded  up,  the  planks  taken  down ;  and  the  articles  of 
furniture  were  supplied  with  rings  and  staves  by  which 
they  could  be  borne  along  in  the  marches.  In  the  first 
four  chapters  of  Numbers  we  have  the  distribution  of  the 
twelve  tribes  about  the  tabernacle  when  in  camp  ;  the  mode 
of  taking  it  down  and  setting  it  up ;  the  method  in  which 
the  various  parts  of  the  building,  the  curtain  and  furniture 
were  carried  by  the  Levites ;  and  the  order  in  which  the 
tribes  moved  in  the  journeys. 

3.  It  was  a  small,  narrow  building,  about  forty-five  feet 
long  and  thirteen  and  a  half  feet  wide.  It  was  hardly  large 
enough. to  give  standing-room  for  a  hundred  men,  yet  it 
was  the  only  place  of  public  worship  for  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  numbering  not  less  than  three  millions.  This 
smallness  is  explained  by  the  fact — 

4.  That  it  was  intended  for  worship  by  representation. 
Sacrifice  was  offered,  not  hy  the  people  in  a  mass,  but  for 
the  people  by  the  ministry  of  a  few  men  representing  all 
Israel. 

5.  The  edifice   and    its   appointments  were  exceedingly 

beautiful.     The  material  glory  of  the  house  shined  forth 

from  the  profusion  of  gold  and  embroidery  and  cunning 

work.     It  was  a  tent  and  a  sanctuary  or  habitation  fit  for 

God. 

Immediate  Uses  of  the  House. 

1.  It  was  a  tent  for  Jehovah.  Just  as  a  commander-in- 
chief  of  an  army  in  the  fie*ld  has  a  tent  for  his  headquarters, 
fio  Jehovah,  who  was  the  "leader  and  commander  of  the 
people,"  ordered  a  tent  to  be  prepared  for  himself.  His 
throne- room  was  the  most  holy  place,  and  the  exact  situa- 
tion of  the  throne  was  the  mercy-seat.  "  0  Thou  that  dwell- 
est  between  the  cherubims,  shine  forth."  Ps.  Ixxx.  1. 

2.  The  place  of  the  oracles.  God  spake  first  to  Moses 
on  Mount  Sinai.  When  the  tabernacle  was  finished  and 
iedicated,  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire  came  down  from 


76  PBEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

the  mount  and  stood  over  the  most  holy  place.  Ex  xl.  34. 
God  spake  to  Moses  out  of  "  the  tabernacle  of  the  congrega- 
tion" and  delivered  to  him  the  Levitical  law.  Lev.  i.  1.  See 
also  Num.  xii.  4 ;  Ex.  xxv.  22. 

3.  A  meeting-place.  Jehovah  met  with  his  servants  in  the 
sanctuary.  The  phrase  "tabernacle  of  the  congregation" 
means  simply  the  tent  of  meeting — i.  e.,  the  tent  where  God 
meets  with  his  people.  Ex.  xxix.  42,  43. 

4.  The  house  took  the  name  "tabernacle  of  witness"  or 
testimony  (Num.  xvii.  7 ;  Acts  vii.  44)  from  the  fact  that 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  standing  in  the  most  holy  place, 
contained  at  first  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  and  in  due  time 
the  book  of  the  law  or  the  Levitical  institutes.  Deut.  xxxi. 
26.  It  was  a  witness  of  the  holiness  of  God  and  of  the 
sinfulness  of  the  people,  establishing  the  necessity  of  the 
atonement  and  purification  set  out  in  the  ritual. 

Symbolical  Meaning  of  the  Tabernacle. 

1.  The  main  truth  symbolized  by  the  sanctuary  was  the 
inhabitation  of  God  in  the  midst  of  the  race.  It  was  a 
perpetual  testimony  that  God  does  not  dwell  afar  off;  that 
he  is  not  too  great  to  concern  himself  with  human  affairs ; 
that  he  is  near  at  hand  to  punish  the  wicked  and  reward 
the  righteous.  Jehovah's  tent  in  the  centre  of  the  camp, 
the  cloud  of  his  glory  standing  above  the  dwelling,  his 
glory  between  the  cherubim,  his  voice  heard  therein,  were 
expounded  by  God  himself:  "'And  let  them  make  me 
a  sanctuary,  that  I  may  dwell  among  them."  Ex.  xxv.  8 ; 
xxix.  45. 

2.  Approach  can  be  made  to  God  only  by  atonement  and 
purification.  Between  the  curtain  of  the  fore  court  and 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  stood  first  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  then  the  laver  of  washing.  Both  must  be  passed 
on  the  way  to  the  sanctuary,  showing  the  necessity  of  for- 
giveness and  the  washing  of  regeneration. 


The  Tabernacle  and  Laver. 


The  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 


Pase  7-'>. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  77 

3.  The  mercy-seat  covering  the  tables  of  the  law  showed  that 
"  mercy  rejoiceth  over  judgment."    Kapporeth,  the  covering, 

4.  The  altar  of  incense  symbolized  prayer.  Ps.  cxli.  2; 
Rev.  V.  8.  The  candlestick  was  the  symbol  of  truth  dif- 
fused (Rev.  i.  20),  and  the  table  of  show-bread,  a  loaf  for 
each  tribe,  suggested  communion  with  God  at  his  table. 
The  priests  by  whom  the  bread  was  eaten  represented  the 
people  in  the  act  of  communion. 

Typical  Meaning. 
See  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

After-history  of  the  Tabernacle. 

After  the  children  of  Israel  entered  Canaan,  the  taber- 
nacle of  Moses  was  the  sanctuary  for  about  five  hundred 
years,  until  the  reign  of  Solomon,  when  the  temple  was  built. 
When  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan,  the  tabernacle  was 
set  up  first  in  Gilgal,  then  in  Shiloh,  twenty-three  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  in  Ephraim.  Shiloh  retained  the  taber- 
nacle between  three  and  four  hundred  years.  In  the  reign 
of  Saul  it  was  removed  to  Nob,  about  six  miles  north  of 
J^.usalem,  and  was  afterward  conveyed  to  Gibeon.  In  the 
time  of  Eli  the  arls:  of  the  covenant  was  taken  from  the 
tabernacle,  and  was  never  returned  to  its  place. 

Solomon's  Temple. 

The  tabernacle  bore  a  distinct  relation  to  the  temple  in 
its  plan  and  furniture.  It  was  a  tent  for  Jehovah  while 
Israel  dwelt  in  tents ;  it  was  movable  until  Mount  Moriah 
was  purchased  by  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  18,  sg.),  when  it 
gave  place  to  a  permanent  and  magnificent  sanctuary. 

Solomon's  temple  was  double  the  size  of  the  tabernacle. 

The  materials  were  square  stones  instead  of  acacia  wood ; 

the   walls   and    ceiling   were    lined    with    cedar   curiously 

carved   in   flowers   and   palm   trees   and   cherubim.     The 

altar  of  burnt-offering  was  t\^  enty  cubits  square  and  ten  in 
1* 


78  PBEPARING   TO   TEACH. 

height ;  instead  of  the  laver,  a  molten  sea,  measuring  from 
fifteen  to  seventeen  thousand  gallons,  standing  on  twelve 
brazen  oxen  with  their  heads  turned  outward ;  instead  of 
one  golden  candlestick  and  one  table  of  show-bread  there 
were  ten;  in  the  most  holy  place  the  cherubim  were  of 
olive  wood,  ten  cubits  high ;  and  at  the  door  of  the  temple 
two  pillars  of  brass.  For  descriptions  see  1  Kings,  chap- 
ters vi.  and  vii. ;  2  Chronicles,  chapters  iii.  and  iv. 

For  the  temple  of  Zerubbabel  and  the  temple  of  Herod 
reference  is  made  to  the  Bible  dictionaries. 


LESSOJ^  II. 

SACKED   PERSONS. 

Origin  and  Histoky  of  the  Priesthood. 

1.  The  Priesthood  in  the  Primitive  and  Patri- 
archal Ages. — At  the  beginning  each  worshiper  offered 
sacrifice  for  himself,  as  Adam  (Gen.  iii.  21),  Cain  and  Abel. 
Gen.  iv.  After  the  flood  the  office  was  in  the  patriarch 
of  the  family.  Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  among 
the  chosen  seed,  Melchizedek,  and  perhaps  the  priest  of 
Midian  (Ex.  ii.  16),  among  the  heathen,  ministered  at  the 
altar. 

2.  Indications  of  Future  Changes  in  the  Ordi- 
nance.— (1.)  In  Jacob's  prophecy  respecting  the  future 
of  the  twelve  tribes,  he  declared  that  the  tribe  of  Levi 
should  have  no  separate  inheritance  in  Canaan,  but  should 
be  "  scattered  and  divided."  Gen.  xlix.  5-7. 

(2.)  At  the  slaying  of  the  first-born  in  Egypt,  God  re- 
served to  himself,  for  the  service  of  the  altar,  the  first- 
born son  in  every  family  of  all  Israel  and  the  first-born 
of  beasts.  Ex.  xiii.  2 ;  Num.  viii.  17.  At  the  great  covenant 
sacrifice  at  Sinai,  burnt-offerings  and  peace-offerings  were 


CEREMONIAL     NSTITUTES.  70 

offered  by  these  first-born   sous.  Ex.  xxiv.  5.     But  their 
priesthood  was  temporary  and  provisional. 

(3.)  Meanwhile,  the  leading  position  assigned  to  Aaron  in 
the  negotiation  with  Pharaoh  and  in  the  giving  of  the  law 
intimated  not  obscurely  that  he  was  foreordained  to  some 
high  calling. 

0.  The  Sacred  Persons  Designated. — (1.)  Very  early 
in  the  proceedings  at  Sinai,  God  commanded  Moses  to  set 
Aaron  and  his  sons  apart  to  the  priesthood.  Ex.  xxviii.  1. 
At  this  stage  in  the  history  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  the 
priests,  and  the  first-born  sons  of  all  Israel  were  their 
assistants. 

(2.)  As  a  reward  of  the  fidelity  and  zeal  of  the  Levites 
at  Sinai  (Ex.  xxxii.  25-29)  they  were  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  Jehovah.  Deut.  xxxiii.  10.  In  due  time  he 
ordered  all  the  first-born  males  of  all  Israel,  twenty-two 
thousand  in  number,  to  be  exchanged  for  a  like  number  of 
males  in  the  tribe  of  Levi.  The  remainder,  two  hundred 
and  seventy-three  first-born  males  in  all  Israel,  were  released 
from  the  service  of  the  altar  by  the  payment  of  five  shekels 
each  redemption  money.  By  this  arrangement  Aaron  and 
his  male  descendants  became  the  priests,  and  the  males  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi  became  his  assistants,  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  all  the  tribes.  Num.  iii.  5-13,  40-51 ;  viii.  16-19. 
That  was  the  final  and  permanent  arrangement. 

Divine  Vocation  of  the  Sacred  Persons. 

1.  The  Calling. — We  have  already  seen  that  Aaron 
and  his  sons  were  set  apart  to  the  priesthood  by  the 
divine  command,  wherein  they  were  named  one  by  one. 
Ex.  xxviii.  1.  To  this  purpose  Paul  says,  "No  man 
taketh  this  honor  unto  himself,  but  he  that  was  called  of 
God  as  was  Aaron."  Heb.  v.  4.  The  tribe  of  Levi,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  also  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle by  the  Almighty. 


80  PREPARING   TC    TEACH. 

2.  This  Vocation  was  Sovereign. — No  reason  is  giver 
why  God  chose  Aaron  to  be  high  priest  rather  than  any 
other  Israelite.  Even  when  Korah  and  his  company  con- 
tested Aaron's  right  to  the  office,  God  did  not  condescend 
to  give  reasons  for  the  choice  which  he  had  made.  Aaron 
was  no  doubt  eminently  a  man  of  God.  But  the  narrative 
is  careful  to  show  that  Aaron  was  bv  no  means  free  from 
sin.  Even  after  he  was  called  to  his  holy  office  (Ex.  xxviii. 
1),  he  encouraged  the  people  in  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calf  Ex.  xxxii.  Not  long  afterward  he  joined  Miriam  in 
murmuring  against  the  divine  appointment  by  which  Moses, 
being  assigned  to  the  prophetic  office,  was  preferred  before 
them.  For  this  sin  Miriam  was  smitten  with  leprosy.  Aaron 
escaped  that  punishment  only  because  the  leprosy  would 
have  disqualified  him  for  the  priestly  office.  Num.  xii.  And, 
finally,  thirty-eight  years  afterward,  he  became  a  partaker 
in  the  sin  of  Moses,  and  was  sentenced  to  die  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Num.  XX.  It  is  certain  that  Aaron  was  chosen  to  the 
holy  priesthood  out  of  God's  good  pleasure,  "  without  any 
foresight  of  faith  and  good  works,  or  perseverance  in  either 
of  them,  as  conditions  or  causes  moving  him  thereto."  The 
same  is  to  be  said  with  much  emphasis  of  the  choice  which 
God  made  of  two  of  Aaron's  sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu.  After 
their  consecration  they  ofiered  strange  fire  before  the  Lord, 
and  were  devoured  by  fire  going  out  from  the  Lord.  Lev. 
X.  1-3.     They  were  not  chosen  for  their  piety. 

3.  Vindication  of  Aaron's  Vocation. — Within  one 
or  two  years  after  Aaron's  call  and  consecration,  Korah, 
who  was  a  Levite,  with  Dathan  and  Abiram  of  the  tribe 
of  Reuben,  instigated  a  revolt  in  the  camp  against  the 
leadership  of  Moses  and  the  priesthood  in  the  hands  of 
Aaron.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  princes,  men  famous  in  the 
congregation  and  of  great  renown,  entered  into  the  con- 
spiracy.    Its  object  was  to  oust  both  Moses  and  Aaron 


The  High  Priest. 


The  Breastplate. 


Page  81. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  81 

from  their  offices.  The  conspirators  were  put  to  the  test  be- 
fore the  Lord.  Korah  and  his  company  were  destroyed, 
and  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  princes  who  presumed  to 
offer  incense  were  consumed  by  fire  from  the  Lord.  Num. 
xvi.  35.  The  censers  which  the  insurgents  used  were,  by 
God's  command,  made  into  broad  plates  for  a  covering  for 
the  altar,  to  be  a  memorial  unto  the  children  of  Lsrael  that 
'*  no  stranger  which  is  not  of  the  seed  of  Aaron  come  near 
to  offer  incense  before  the  Lord."  Num.  xvi.  40. 

Aaron's  Vocation  Authenticated. — The  chiefs  of 
Israel,  one  out  of  each  tribe,  were  directed  by  Jehovah 
to  take,  each  of  them,  a  rod,  and  write  his  name  upon  it. 
Aaron  did  the  same.  The  twelve  rods  were  laid  up  in  the 
tabernacle.  On  the  morrow  it  was  found  that  the  rod  of 
Aaron  had  blossomed  and  yielded  almonds.  This  rod  was 
laid  up  in  the  most  holy  place  as  a  memorial  that  Aaron, 
to  whom  that  rod  belonged,  and  his  sons  were  the  only  true 
and  lawful  priests.  It  was,  in  some  sense,  a  commission, 
deposited  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  authenticating  the 
divine  and  exclusive  priesthood  of  Aaron  and  his  sons. 
Num.  xvii. 

The  Office,  how  Perpetuated. — The  priesthood  was 
conferred  upon  Aaron  and  his  sons,  descending  from  him 
through  the  ages.  We  must  recognize  here  an  extraordinary 
providential  intervention  in  the  usual  course  of  nature.  It 
is  rare  that  any  family  is  perpetuated  in  the  male  line  beyond 
six  or  eight  generations.  But  God  made  himself  responsible 
for  the  continuance  of  heirs  male  to  Aaron  through  about 
forty-five  generations  dow^n  to  the  coming  of  Christ.  Through 
this  entire  period  of  fifteen  hundred  years  there  was  no  fail- 
ure in  the  succession.  For  the  line  of  descent,  see  1  Chron. 
vi.  3-14  and  Neh.  xii.  10,  sq. 

Dress  of  the  High  Priest. 
See  Ex.  xxviii.,  and  illustrations. 


82  PREPARING   TO   TEACB. 

Ceremonial  Holiness. 

The  most  important  qualification  of  the  priesthood  was 
the  ceremonial  purity.  God  laid  upon  the  conscience  of 
the  priest  the  command  to  be  pure  in  heart ;  yet  one  might 
be  a  lawful  priest,  though  a  wicked  man.  No  standard  of 
mental  training  was  proposed,  for  the  reason  that  the  func- 
tions of  his  office  required  in  him  little  more  than  the  de- 
cent and  orderly  performance  of  outward  ceremonies.  He 
taught  the  people  mainly  by  the  dumb-show  of  the  ritual, 
using  not  oral  but  pictorial  instruction.  But  he  must  be 
ceremonially  clean,  scrupulously  so — 

1.  In  his  dress.  On  the  forefront  of  his  mitre  was 
written,  Holiness  unto  the  Lord.  Ex.  xxviii.  36. 

2.  In  his  consecration.  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  washed 
with  water  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle.  Ex.  xxix.  4.  A 
solemn  atonement  was  made  for  them.  Ex.  xxix.  10,  15,  19. 

3.  He  must  be  free  from  bodily  defects.  If  he  was 
deformed,  he  might  be  supported  from  the  treasury  of 
the  sanctuary,  but  might  not  officiate  as  priest.  Lev.  xxi. 
17-23. 

4.  Cleanliness.  See  Lev.  xxii.  1-9.  The  law  touching 
leprosy  in  Lev.  xxii.  4  explains  the  fact  that  Aaron  was  not 
smitten  with  leprosy  as  well  as  Miriam.  Num.  xii.  9.  The 
priest  might  not  touch  a  dead  body,  nor  enter  a  house  where 
the  dead  lay,  even  if  the  dead  were  his  father  or  mother. 
Lev.  xxi.  11.  Nor  might  he  give  any  sign  of  mourning, 
for  that  was  unclean  ceremonially.  Lev.  xxi.  10-12.  For 
this  among  other  reasons,  at  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu, 
God  commanded  Aaron  and  his  surviving  sons  not  to  ex- 
hibit any  signs  of  grief,  or  even  to  leave  the  tabernacle. 

Functions  of  the  Priesthood. 

1.  The  priest  taken  from  among  men  was  ordained  for 
men  in  things  pertaining  to  God,  that  he  might  offer  gifts 
and  sacrifices  for  sin.  Heb.  v.  1. 


CEREMONIAL   INSTITUTES.  83 

2.  He  stood  as  the  representative  of  a  wide  constituency. 
(1.)  Israel  was  appointed  by  God  to  be*  "a  kingdom  of 
priests,  a  holy  nation."  Ex.  xix.  6.  That  was  the  point  of 
Korah's  plea  against  the  exclusive  prerogative  claimed  by 
Aaron :  "  Ye  take  too  much  upon  you,  seeing  all  the  con- 
gregation are  holy,  every  one  of  them."  Num.  xvi.  3.  See 
also  Isaiah  Ixi.  6.  (2.)  The  tribe  of  Levi  represented  the 
wliole  kingdom  of  priests — i.  e.,  all  Israel ;  the  family  of 
Aaron  represented  the  tribe  of  Levi ;  and  Aaron  represented 
his  family  in  the  office  of  high  priest.  Aaron,  who  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  whole  hierarchy,  represented  his  family 
before  the  Lord's  altar ;  and  through  his  family  his  tribe ; 
and  through  his  tribe  all  Israel ;  and  through  them  the 
whole  body  of  God's  elect.  This  circumstance  gives  us  a 
deep  insight  into  the  typical  relation  between  the  Aaronic 
priesthood  and  that  of  Christ,  to  wit :  Christ's  representa- 
tive relation  to  his  people. 

3.  Aaron's  representative  position  is  indicated — (1.)  In 
his  official  dress.  On  his  shoulders  were  twelve  onyx  stones, 
bearing  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes.  His  breastplate 
contained  twelve  jewels  on  which  the  same  names  were 
graven.  Ex.  xxviii.  9,  15.  (2.)  His  special  duty  was  to 
offer  sacrifices  not  only  for  his  own  sins  but  for  the  sins  of 
the  people.  Lev.  xvi. ;  Heb.  ix.  7.  (3.)  He  was  the  sole 
offerer  of  sacrifices.  If  any  other  man,  even  any  other 
Levite,  should  come  nigh  the  altar,  he  was  put  to  death. 
Num.  iii.  10 ;  xvi.  40 ;  xviii.  3.  (4.)  He  was  the  mediator 
between  God  and  the  people,  representing  both.  By  the 
words  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord,"  engraved  on  his  mitre,  he 
appeared  for  God ;  by  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  in 
tlie  onyx  stones  and  in  the  breastplate,  he  appeared  for 
the  people. 

4.  He  was  the  bearer  of  the  holy  oracles.  The  Urira 
and  Thummim  were  in  the  breastplate,  and  by  the  use  of 
these,  when  he  stood  before  the  inner  veil  of  the  tabernacle, 


84  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

he  asked  counsel  of  God  and  received  the  answer  spoken 
out  of  the  holy  of  holies.  Num.  xxvii.  21. 

Symbolical  Meaning  of  the  Sacerdotal  Office. 

1.  Man  needs  a  divinely  appointed  mediator  between 
himself  and  God.  No  other  could  come  before  God  and 
Jive. 

2  The  mediator  must  be  a  representative  of  both  God 
and  man. 

3.  He  must  come  before  God  with  the  blood  of  an 
atoning  sacrifice. 

Typical  Lesson. 

See  on  this  vital  doctrine  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
which  is  an  inspired  and  luminous  commentary  on  the 
book  of  Leviticus.     Some  of  the  points  are — 

1.  The  divine  vocation  of  Christ.  Compare  Ex.  xxviii. 
1  with  Heb.  v.  4. 

2.  Personal  holiness.  The  holiness  of  the  Levitical  priest 
was  ceremonial,  a  type  only  of  the  essential  holiness  of 
Christ. 

3.  His  representative  position.  Christ  has  entered  into 
heaven  itself,  now  to  appear  in  the  presence  of  God  for 
us.  Heb.  ix.  24. 

4.  Christ  is  our  mediator.  Compare  Lev.  xvi.  15  with 
Heb.  ix.  15  and  1  Tim.  ii.  5. 

5.  He  made  a  true  atonement  for  sin.  Compare  Lev.  iv. 
20,  26,  31,  35,  with  Heb.  ix.  11,  12. 

6.  He  is  our  intercessor.  Compare  Lev.  xvi.  15  with 
Heb.  ix.  24 ;  vii.  25. 

Christ  as  Priest  Superior  to  Aaron. 

(1.)  Christ  made  priest  with  an  oath.  (2.)  Holy,  hai-m- 
less,  undefiled.  (3.)  A  royal  priest — priest  and  king  after 
the  order  of  Melchizedek.  (4.)  Offering  a  sacrifice  once 
for  all.     (5.)  Holding  an  unchangeable  and  eternal  priest- 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  85 

hood.  (6.)  Christ  a  priest,  not  under  but  above  the  Mosaic 
law ;  not  after  the  order  of  Levi,  but  an  order  greater  than 
that  of  Melchizedek  himself.  Heb.  vii.  and  viii. 


ZESSOJV  III. 
SACRED  EITES. 

The  ritual  was  the  central  part  of  the  ceremonial  insti- 
tutes. The  sanctuary  and  its  utensils  were  adapted  to 
•worship  by  sacrifice  only.  The  priesthood  was  appointed 
to  offer  sacrifices.  The  sacred  times  were  set  apart  for 
these  solemnities. 

DiSTEIBUTION    OF   THE    SaCRED    RiTES. 

1.  Into  offerings  and  purifications.  These  two  classes 
correspond  to  the  furniture  of  the  fore  court,  the  altar 
being  symbolical  of  atonement,  and  the  laver  of  regene- 
ration. The  offerings  also  refer  to  the  guilt  (culpa),  and 
the  purification  to  the  stain  (macula),  of  sin. 

2.  The  offerings  were — (1.)  Animal,  or  bloody  and  ex- 
piatory ;  (2.)  Vegetable,  or  bloodless  and  thankful.  They 
rested  on  the  truth  that  the  worship  of  sinners  must  contain 
the  two  elements  of  expiation  for  sin  and  gratitude  for  the 
blessings  of  God.  The  first  element  was  represented  by  the 
bloody,  the  last  by  the  unbloody,  oblation. 

3.  The  animal  oblations  were — (1.)  The  whole  burnt- 
offering,  Hebrew  Olah,  wherein  the  whole  body  of  the  victim 
was  slowly  burned  on  the  altar.  (2.)  The  burnt-offering,  in 
which  only  a  part  of  the  victim — e.  g.,  the  fat — was  burned. 
SeePs.  Ii.'l9. 

4.  Burnt-offerings  were — (1.)  Sin;  (2.)  Trespass;  (3.) 
Peace-offerings.  In  all  these  a  portion  of  the  victim  was 
burned  ;  the  fat  only,  or  a  part  of  the  flesh  with  the  fat. 


86  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

5.  Peace-offerings  were  bloody  and  were  for — (1.)  Vows ; 
(2.)  Thanksgiving;  (3.)  Free-will. 

6.  Vegetable  offerings  were — (1.)  Meat;  (2.)  Drink; 
(3.)  First  fruits ;  (4.)  Fruits  dedicated  in  vows. 

SECTION  I. 

Offerings, 
characteristics  op  animal  offering. 

1.  The  animals  were  invariably  such  as  were  used  for 
food ;  the  ox-kind,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  and  in  condescen- 
sion to  the  poor  the  turtle  dove  and  pigeon.  The  reasons 
why  animals  used  for  food  were  chosen  are — (1.)  They 
represented  the  wealth  of  the  people,  and  the  lesson  was 
that  man's  possessions  all  belonged  to  God.  (2.)  This  rule 
brought  religious  worship  and  daily  family  life  close  to- 
gether. (3.)  Eating  the  flesh  of  the  victim  was  a  part  of 
certain  ceremonies  at  the  altar. 

2.  The  place  of  the  sacrifice  was  always  at  the  sanctuary. 
The  one  sole  altar  and  the  one  single  high  priesthood  inti- 
mated not  obscurely  the  unity  of  God  ;  the  unity  of  the  race 
as  created,  fallen  and  redeemed ;  the  unity  of  the  Church, 
and  the  oneness  of  the  mediator.  The  law  was  imperative. 
See  Deut.  xii.  13 ;  compare  Josh.  xxii.  9-34. 

3.  The  minister  of  the  sacrifice  was  the  priest  alone. 
Num.  iii.  10  ;  xvi.  40 ;  xviii.  3-7.  Compare  the  crime  and 
punishment  of  Korah  and  his  company  in  Num.  xvi. 

The  Whole  Burnt-offeeing. 

1.  It  was  so  called  because  the  whole  body  of  the  victim 
(.the  skin  only  excepted,  which  was  the  priest's  perquisite. 
Lev.  vii.  8)  was  burned.  Lev.  i.  6-9.  It  was  also  stylea 
Olah,  ascension,  because  it  went  up  to  God  in  the  smoke 
thereof.  In  the  Greek  text  of  Heb.  x.  8  it  is  called  holo- 
caust— i.  e.,  burnt  whole. 

2.  This  was  the  most  ancient  form  of  sacrifice.     It  was 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  87 

offered  by  Noah  eight  hundred  years  before  the  giving  of 
the  law.  When  introduced  into  the  Hebrew  ritual,  the 
people  well  knew  that  it  was  no  new  act  of  worship,  that 
it  taught  no  new  theology.  It  was  one  of  their  oldest  and 
most  sacred  traditions. 

3.  The  basis  of  the  entire  ritual  was  laid  in  this  oblation. 
The  burning  entered  as  an  integral  element  into  all  the 
forms  of  the  bloody  offerings  ;  into  the  sin-,  the  trespass-  and 
the  peace-offerings.  Blood  and  fire  were  invariably  seen  in 
every  one  of  the  expiatory  rites. 

4.  It  was  renewed  twice  daily  from  day  to  day,  and  was 
therefore  a  "  continual  burnt-offering."  The  fire  never  went 
out,  the  smoke  never  ceased  to  ascend  day  or  night.  Ex. 
xxix.  42 ;  Num.  xxviii.  3-6. 

5.  This  was  the  general  comprehensive  offering  for  sin 
as  sin  and  for  the  sin  of  the  race  as  a  whole.  Offerings  for 
particular  sins,  whether  of  individuals  or  of  all  Israel,  took 
the  specific  form  of  the  sin-  or  the  trespass-  or  the  peace- 
offering.  The  olah  was  in  the  nature  of  a  general  act  of 
worship  and  expiation  for  sin,  without  special  reference  to 
the  guilt  of  the  individual,  or  even  of  the  Hebrews  as  the 
chosen  people.  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh 
away  the  sin  oj  the  world." 

The  Six- offering. 
See  Leviticus  iv.  to  v.  14. 

1.  Like  the  olah,  it  was  expiatory.  Blood  was  shed  and 
sprinkled  on  the  furniture  of  the  sanctuary,  and  was  poured 
in  floods  over  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  in  the  fore-court. 

2.  Unlike  the  olah,  it  was  expiatory  of  particular  sins 
and  the  sins  of  individuals. 

3.  Unlike  the  olah,  the  fat  only  was  burnt,  and  the  kid- 
neys, because  these  organs  were  imbedded  in  large  deposits 
of  fat.  The  flesh  was  otherwise  disposed  of.  Lev.  iv.  8, 
10-15. 


88  PBEPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

4.  The  greater  sin-ofFering  was  presented — (1.)  For  the 
high  priest  when  he  was  guilty  of  crime  (Lev.  iv.  3-12)  ; 
(2.)  For  a  sin  of  the  whole  people  (Lev.  iv.  1 3-21)  ;  (3.) 
On  the  great  day  of  atonement.  Lev.  xvi.  26. 

5.  The  lesser  sin-offering  was  presented — (1.)  By  the  ruler 
(Lev.  iv.  22-26) ;  (2.)  By  the  private  person  (vs.  27-35) : 
and  (3.)  In  various  purifications,  xii.  6 ;  xiv.  19. 

The  Trespass-offering. 
The  full  distinction  between  the  sin-  and  the  trespass- 
offering  has  not,  perhaps,  been  ascertained.  But  the  fol- 
lowing are  points  in  which  they  differ:  1.  The  trespass- 
offering  was  never  presented  for  the  guilt  of  the  whole 
people.     That  was  a  peculiarity  of  the  sin-offering. 

2.  The  trespass-offering  was  presented  when  the  idea  of 
restitution  for  injuries  done  was  introduced  into  the  service. 
Lev.  vi.  1-7.  This  offering  belonged,  in  a  special  sense, 
to  trespasses  against  human  rights.  Lev.  vi.  1-6;  vii.  1-7  4 
Num.  V.  6-8. 

3.  It  was  an  inferior  form  of  the  sin-offering.  This  ap- 
pears— (1)  from  the  occasion  on  which  it  was  offered ;  and 
(2)  the  blood  was  not  taken  into  the  sanctuary,  nor  put  on 
the  horns  of  the  altar  of  burnt-offering;  but  was  simply 
sprinkled  round  about  on  the  altar.  Lev.  v.  9 ;  vii.  2. 

4.  Christ  is  said,  in  2  Cor.  v.  21,  to  be  made  a  sin-offering 
for  us ;  but  nowhere  is  he  called  a  trespass-offering,  for  the 
reason  that  the  notion  of  our  making  restitution  for  our 
sins  as  against  God  is  exclv  ded. 

Peace-offering. 

See  Lev.  vii.  11-21.  (1.)  It  was  generally  presented  by 
way  of  thanksgiving  for  mercies  received.  2  Sam.  xv.  8 ; 
Ps.  Ixvi.  13-15.  See  also  Jephthah's  vow  in  Judges  xi. 
30,  31. 

2.  Expiation  for   sin   was   an  essential   element   in  the 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  89 

ceremony,  showing  that  thanksgiving  to  God  could  not 
be  separated  from  confession  for  sin.  This  was  one  of  the 
fatal  defects  in  Cain's  offering. 

3.  The  votive  and  Jreewill-  and  thank-offerings  were  the 
three  forms  of  the  peace-offering.  The  ivave-  and  heave- 
offering  took  their  name  from  the  ceremony  of  waving  or 
heaving  a  portion  of  the  victim,  say  the  shoulder,  toward 
the  altar  in  the  holy  of  holies.  Hence  the  "  wave  breast" 
or  "  heave  shoulder."  Lev.  vii.  32-34. 

Bloodless  Offerings. 

1.  These  were  also  called  the  meat-  and  drink-offerings. 
Lev.  ii. 

2.  The  matter  was  corn,  oil,  wine,  the  first-fruits,  etc. 
They  were,  like  the  bloody  offerings,  chosen  from  the  wealth 
of  the  people,  and  were  articles  of  food,  for  the  same 
reasons. 

3.  These  were  solely  thank-offerings.  But  the  idea  of 
expiation  by  fire  and  blood  was  never  absent  from  even 
the  thank-offering.  Without  the  shedding  of  blood  there 
could  be  no  acceptable  service  of  thanks. 

Sacrificial  Rites. 

1.  The  rites  performed  by  those  who  presented  the  victims 
were — (1.)  The  act  of  the  individual  (Lev.  i.  3),  or  of  the 
elders  for  the  congregation  (iv.  14),  bringing  the  victim  to 
the  door  of  the  sanctuary.  Rom.  xii.  1.  (2.)  The  imposi- 
tion of  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  victim,  denoting  sub- 
stitution, the  imputation  of  sin,  and  devoting  the  victim 
to  God.  These  are  the  great  outstanding  elements  of  the 
ceremony.  They  go  deeply  into  the  very  efficacy  of  the 
ritual  and  into  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  Christ.  Lev. 
xvi.  21,  22;  Num.  viii.  9-11;  Lev.  xxiv.  14.  (3.)  The 
slaying  of  the  victim.  This  was  at  first  done  by  the  wor- 
shiper. Lev.  i.  5.  Afterward  this  was  d  me  by  the  Levites, 
because  they  were  more  expert. 

8* 


90  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

2.  It  was  the  office  of  the  priest  to  dispose  of  the  blood. 
He  poured  the  blood  upon  the  brazen  altar  or  at  its  foot. 
Lev.  i.  5.  Or  he  sprinkled  the  blood  on  the  altar  of  in- 
cense or  the  mercy-seat.  Lev.  iv.  4-7,  17,  18 ;  xvi.  14. 
Hence  the  term,  **  blood  of  sprinkling."  The  priest  also 
burned  the  flesh  or  the  fat  with  the  use  of  salt,  etc.  Lev. 

i.  7,  8  ;  ii.  13. 

The  Blood. 

The  capital  controlling  idea  of  the  offering  stood  in  the 
use  made  of  the  blood.  (1.)  With  the  blood  began  the  office 
of  the  priest.  (2.)  God  declared  that  the  life  of  the  flesh 
was  the  blood,  and  the  "blood  maketh  an  atonement  for 
the  soul."  Lev.  xvii.  11.  (3.)  A  perpetual  statute  forbade 
the  eating  of  blood  or  fat,  the  first  being  poured  on  the 
altar  and  the  last  being  offered  by  fire.  Lev.  iii.  17 ;  vii. 
22-27.  Here  the  lesson  was  indicated  that  by  the  shedding 
of  blood  was  the  remission  of  sins. 

The  Offerings  of  the  Poor. 

If  one  was  too  poor  to  bring  a  lamb,  he  might  present 
two  turtle  doves  and  two  pigeons.  Or  in  case  of  extreme 
poverty  he  might  bring  a  little  flour,  without  even  frank- 
incense or  salt;  that,  said  God,  shall  be  a  "sin-offering,"  an 
atonement  for  him  that  hath  sinned.  Lev.  v.  7-11.  This 
is  remarkable  not  only  because  it  shows  God's  compassion 
for  the  poor,  but  because  it  is  an  allowed  departure,  in  be- 
half of  the  poor,  from  the  law  of  sacrifice.  This  explains 
the  offering  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  our  Lord.  Luke  ii.  24. 

SECTION  II. 

Ritual  or  Purifications. 

EXPLANATION. 

1.  The  Occasion  of  Ceremonial  Uncleanness. — (1.) 
Women  in  child-bed.  Lev.  xii.  (2.)  Issue  from  the  flesh 
XV.    (3.)  Leprosy,  xiii.     (4.)  Contact  with  dead  bodies. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  91 

2.  Restraints  Laid  on  the  Unclean. — They  were 
shut  out  of  the  sanctuary  on  penalty  of  death.  Lev.  xiv. 
1-7;  XV.  3;  Num.  xix.  13.  In  leprosy  they  dwelt  in  a 
separate  house. 

3.  Process  of  Cleansing.— (1.)  Washing  in  water.  Lev. 
xiv.  8 ;  XV.  13.  (2.)  Cleansing  by  the  use  of  ashes.  See 
the  ordinance  of  the  red  heifer  in  Num.  xix. ;  compare  Heb 
ix.  13.  (3.)  Hyssop  and  cedar  were  used  to  sweeten  the  un- 
clean. Num.  xix.  6 ;  Lev.  xiv.  4.  (4.)  A  sacrifice,  usually 
by  the  sin-offering.  Lev.  xiv.  10-32.  This  fact  is  most 
important,  showing  that  purification  had  direct  reference 

to  sin. 

Significance  of  Purification. 

The  skeptical  writers  teach  that  they  were  simply  sanitary 
regulations  founded  solely  in — (1)  a  regard  for  personal 
cleanliness ;  (2)  in  a  purpose  to  prevent  the  spread  of  dis- 
ease ;  (3)  and  in  a  natural  repugnance  to  certain  habits  of 
the  body. 

These  explanations  are  insufficient.  (1.)  The  occasions 
of  uncleanness  are  too  few  for  mere  sanitary  purposes. 
There  are  many  things  more  defiling  to  the  body  than 
touching  a  dead  body  or  entering  a  tent  where  the  dead 
are  laid  out.  (2.)  The  sacrifice  of  one  lamb  for  a  burn t- 
and  another  for  a  sin-offering,  or  of  a  turtle  dove  and 
pigeon,  can  have  no  relevancy  to  sanitary  precautions,  or  to 
mere  cleanliness  and  natural  aversion  to  filth. 

This  part  of  the  ritual  was  intended  to  set  out  the  stain 
(macula')  of  sin,  just  as  the  ritual  of  offering  corresponded 
to  guilt  (culpa).  The  occasions  show  this.  Child-birth  was 
ceremonially  unclean  to  point  out  the  fact  of  birth-sin.  Ps. 
li.  5.  Leprosy  was  a  lively  image  of  the  loathsomeness  of 
sin.  Death  is  the  wages  of  sin.  The  stain  of  sin  being  thus 
indicated,  purification  from  sin  was  symbolized  by  the  sin- 
offering,  by  the  washings  and  the  cleansings  and  the  sweeten- 
ing by  hyssop  and  cedar.     The  use  of  the  ashes  of  a  red 


92  peepabijsq  to  teach. 

heifer   shows   that  these  were   not  sanitary  but   religious 
ordinances. 

Symbolical  Meaning  of  the  Ritual  as  a  Whole. 

1.  The  imputation  of  sin,  and  its  transfer  from  the 
offender  to  the  victim.  Lev.  iv.  3,  15,  24. 

2.  Atonement  by  the  shedding  of  blood.  Lev.  xvii.  11 ; 
Heb.  ix.  22. 

3.  The  work  of  salvation  is  twofold.  It  is  an  atonement 
and  a  purification.  These  two  distinct  yet  related,  truths 
were  plainly  taught  by  the  two  distinct  yet  related  systems 
of  offering  and  purification,  both  making  one  undivided 
ritual.  Atonement  for  sin  by  the  shedding  of  blood,  puri- 
fication from  sin  by  washings  and  cleansings,  were  the  out- 
standing and  inseparable  ideas  of  the  system. 

Typical  Meaning. 

1.  The  lamb  was  typical  of  Christ.  John  i.  29. 

2.  The  death  of  Christ  atoning  for  sin  and  the  work  cf 
the  Spirit  purging  away  sin.  See  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

3.  The  ritual  as  a  whole  was  typical  of  the  gospel  as  a 
R'hole ;  it  was  a  shadow  of  good  things  to  come.  Heb.  ix. 


LESSOJT  IV. 
SACKED  TIMES. 


1.  Distribution  — I.  The  Sabbath.  II.  The  feast  of 
trumpets.  III.  Three  great,  feasts  of  convocation.  IV. 
Great  day  of  atonement. 

2.  The  Basis  of  the  Calendar  was  the  Sabbath, 
after  the  manner  in  which  the  altar  was  the  basis  of  the 
tabernacle,  the  patriarchal  priest  the  t^asis  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  the  olah  that  of  the  ritual. 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  93 

3.  Out  of  the  Sabbath  were  evolved  the  three  other 
seasons  which  followed  the  rule  of  sevens,  thus — (1.)  The 
feast  of  trumpets.  (2.)  The  Sabbatical  year  was  the  seventh 
year,  during  which  the  soil  rested  from  tillage,  and  its 
spontaneous  products  were  given  to  the  poor.  Ex.  xxiii. 
10.  11 ;  Lev.  xxv.  1-7;  Deut.  xv.  1,  2.  (3.)  The  year  of 
jubilee  was  the  Sabbath  of  the  sabbatical  years — the  forty- 
ninth  year,  7X7.  Servants  were  liberated,  and  property 
sold  was  returned  to  its  former  owner.  Lev.  xxv. 

Historical  Relations  of  the  Sabbath. 

1.  To  THE  Human  Race. — It  was  given  to  man  at  the 
creation  for  a  dav  of  rest.  Gen.  ii.  2 :  Mark  ii.  27. 

2.  To  THE  Jews. — It  was  made  a  sign  of  the  covenant 
between  God  and  Israel.  Ex.  xxxi.  13.  The  violation  of 
it  was  a  capital  crime.  Ex.  xxxi.  14 ;  xxxv.  2,  3.  This 
law  grew  out  of  the  constitution  of  the  Hebrew  state  as  a 
theocracy,  and  out  of  God's  peculiar  position  in  the  gov- 
ernment as  its  supreme  temporal  King  and  Ruler.  Sabbath- 
breaking  was  leze-majesty — a  crime  against  the  sovereign 
power  in  the  land.  The  worship  of  the  Sabbath  is  pre- 
scribed in  Num.  xxviii.  9.  The  show-bread  was  renewed 
on  this  day.  Lev.  xxiv.  5,  9 ;  compare  Matt.  xii.  5. 

The  Feast  of  Trumpets. 

1.  On  the  first  day  of  the  new  moon  the  beginning  of 
the  month  was  announced  to  the  people  by  the  blowing  of 
silver  trumpets  and  the  cffering  of  a  burnt-ofiering.  Num. 
x.  10 ;  xxviii.  11. 

2.  The  ecclesiastical  year  began  with  the  first  new  moon 
after  the  vernal  equinox,  generally  in  April.  The  civil 
year  began  six  months  later,  in  October,  and  was  intro- 
duced by  the  feast  of  trumpets.  Special  sacrifices  were 
ofiered  on  this  new  year's  anniversary.  Lev.  xxiii.  25; 
Num.  xxix.  1-6.    The  efiect  of  this  was  a  double  date  in 


94  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

the  Jewish  reckoning,  analogous  to  the  usage  in  certain 
public  documents  issued  in  the  United  States,  wherein  two 
dates  appear,  January  1  and  July  4.  For  scriptural  ex- 
positions of  the  feast,  see  Ps.  Ixxxi.  3 ;  Isa.  i.  13,  14 ;  Col. 

ii.  16. 

Feasts  of  Convocation. 

1.  These  were  the  passover,  pentecost  and  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.  In  Deut.  xvi.  16  they  are  denominated  the 
feasts  of  unleavened  bread,  of  weeks  and  of  tabernacles. 

2.  They  are  commonly  called  feasts  of  convocation  be- 
cause all  the  males  of  Israel  were  required  on  these  occa- 
sions to  assemble  at  the  door  of  the  sanctuary  while  they 
were  in  the  wilderness,  and  ever  after,  through  the  ages, 
while  they  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Canaan.  Ex.  xxiii.  17. 
Among  the  advantages  of  this  remarkable  ordinance  were : 
(1.)  It  gave  opportunity  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
whole  people.  (2.)  It  strengthened  the  bonds  of  national 
unity,  counteracting  some  of  the  divisive  tendencies  of  tribal 
separation  and  jealousy.  (3.)  It  brought  to  the  minds  of 
the  people  the  truths  and  promises  of  which  these  feasts 
were  symbolical. 

3.  The  passover  took  place  at  the  opening  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical year ;  the  feast  of  the  tabernacles  occurred  at  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  year.  The  pentecost  divided  the 
interval  unequally.  The  three  feasts  all  fell  into  the  six 
months  from  April  to  October. 

4.  Each  of  these  feasts  had  a  threefold  association  with 
the  usages  of  the  people.  One  was  historical,  commemo- 
rating an  event  in  the  history  of  the  people.  A  second 
was  national,  marking  the  season  of  the  year.  The  third 
was  religious,  connected  with  spiritual  blessings  enjoyed  or 

expected. 

Passover. 

1.  It  commemorated  the  departure  from  Egypt.  Ex.  xii. 
1-28. 


CEREMONIAL   INSTITUTES.  95 

2.  It  marked  the  beginning  of  the  early  harvest.  Lev. 
xxiii.  10-14.     "Green  ears"  in  April. 

3.  The  lamb  slain  was  a  type  of  Christ :  "  Christ  oui 
passover."  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8. 

PENTECOSr. 

This  feast  was  held  seven  weeks  after  the  passover ;  hence 
called  feast  of  weeks.  Lev.  xxiii.  15,  16. 

1.  Jewish  traditions  suggest  that  it  commemorated  the 
giving  of  the  law  from  Sinai,  fifty  days  after  the  Exodus. 

2.  It  marked  the  latter  harvest ;  hence  called  the  *'  feast 
of  harvest"  in  Ex.  xxiii.  16.  Compare  Num.  xxviii.  26; 
Lev.  xxiii.  17. 

3.  It  prefigured  perhaps  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
"  when  the  day  of  pentecost  was  fully  come."  Acts  ii.  1. 

Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

It  was  so  called  because  during  the  feast  the  people  dwelt 
in  booths  or  tents.  Lev.  xxiii.  40. 

1.  Historically  it  was  associated  with  the  journey  in  the 
wilderness. 

2.  It  marked  the  beginning  of  the  vintage  and  ingather- 
ing of  the  fruits.  Ex.  xxiii.  16. 

3.  The  state  of  the  Church  in  the  everlasting  rest  was 
represented  by  this  feast.  Compare  Lev.  xxiii.  40  with 
Kev.  vii.  9. 

The  Great  Day  op  Atonement. 

This  was  by  far  the  most  solemn  and  imposing  of  all  the 
ceremonial  observances.  It  is  described  at  length  in  the 
sixteenth  chapter  of  Leviticus.  The  references  below  are 
to  that  chapter,  unless  otherwise  indicated. 

1.  It  was  a  day  of  fasting  and  sorrow  and  humiliation 
for  sin.  Lev.  xxiii.  27-29 ;  xvi.  29-31. 

2    The  day  occurred  very  near  the  close  of  the  civil  year 


96  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

in  October.  Lev.  xvi.  29.  The  sins  of  the  people  had  been 
typically  atoned  for  by  the  daily  sacrifice  and  the  continual 
burnt-offering.  But  now  the  sins  of  the  whole  year  were 
recapitulated,  and  a  broad  atonement  was  made  for  the 
accumulated  mass  of  transgressions. 

3.  The  atonement  was  most  thorough.  The  high  priest 
made  an  atonement  for  himself  and  his  family ;  for  the 
people ;  for  the  holy  place ;  for  the  most  holy  place ;  for 
the  altar  of  sacrifice  itself,  vs.  6-20.  See  the  summing  up 
in  V.  33.  It  was  a  most  vivid  picture  of  the  moral  pollution 
of  man.  The  high  priest  was  held  to  be  himself  a  sinner ; 
he  was  held  to  be  polluted  by  the  sins  of  the  people  as  their 
representative.  The  altar  of  their  daily  worship,  all  the 
sacred  furniture  of  the  sanctuary,  the  holy  place,  the  most 
holy  place,  and  even  the  mercy-seat,  were  treated  as  things 
jwlluted,  and  now  to  be  purified  by  the  shedding  and  sprink- 
ling of  blood.  Like  a  subtle  infection,  sin  had  poisoned  all, 
even  the  most  holy,  and  was  required  to  be  removed  on  the 
great  day  of  national  fasting  and  humiliation. 

4.  The  services  of  the  day  summed  up  and  recapitulated 
the  entire  ritual.  (1.)  All  the  animals  used  in  daily  sacri- 
fices were  now  slain,  vs.  3-5.  (2.)  The  three  great  forms  of 
sacrifice  were  used,  the  olah  (v.  24)  ;  the  sin-offering  (v. 
25)  ;  and  the  burning  without  the  camp.  v.  27.  (3.)  All 
parts  of  the  sanctuary  and  all  its  furniture  were  brought 
into  use :  the  fore-court  (v.  24)  ;  the  holy  place  (v.  20)  ;  and 
the  holy  of  holies,  v.  14.  The  whole  ritual  system  was  re- 
produced. It  was  all  there.  The  sanctuary  in  all  its  apart- 
ments was  entered.  The  priesthood  was  there  in  its  highest 
representative.  The  ritual  was  there  in  the  blood  of  bullock, 
ram  and  goat — this  blood  sprinkled  everywhere;  the  burnt- 
offering  on  the  altar,  the  sin-oft'ering,  the  burning  without 
the  camp  were  seen  there.  The  day  itself  was  a  Sabbath 
of  rest  and  affliction.  Lev.  xxiii.  32.  The  ceremonies  made 
up  an  atonement  for  sin,  for  all  sin — of  all  the  people,  an 


CEREMONIAL  INSTITUTES.  97 

atonement  for  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary  and  the  mercy- 
seat,  unclean  by  the  transgression  of  Israel. 

5.  Ceremonies  peculiar  to  this  day.  (1.)  One  of  these 
was  the  entrance  into  the  most  holy  place  by  the  high  priest. 
On  this  one  day  in  the  year  only  might  tlie  high  j)riest  go 
behind  the  veil.  He  went  in  during  the  day  once  with  in- 
cense and  with  blood  for  his  own  sins,  and  once  with  blood 
for  the  sins  of  the  people.  Lev.  xvi. ;  Heb.  ix.  7,  25. 

(2.)  Another  was  the  ceremony  of  the  slain  and  the  scape- 
goats. Lev.  xvi.  7-10  ;  xvi.  21-26.  The  symbolical  meaning 
of  this  rite  is  plain.  The  atonement  for  sin  includes  two 
ideas,  substitution  for  sin  and  its  removal  from  the  offender. 
Substitution  was  set  forth  by  the  goat  slain  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle.  Its  removal  was  represented  by  the  acts  of 
the  high  priest  confessing  over  the  other  goat  the  iniquities 
of  the  people,  putting  them  on  its  head,  and  sending  him 
into  the  wilderness  to  return  no  more.  Substitution  for  the 
sinner  and  the  removal  of  his  sin  made  up  expiation.  The 
slain  goat  was  a  symbol  of  the  sin-sacrifice ;  the  scapegoat 
of  the  sin-bearer.  This  plain  explanation  of  the  rite  shows 
how  useless  are  the  puzzles  which  have  been  invented  whereby 
the  subject  is  confused.  These  are  some  of  the  unreasonable 
suggestions  that  have  been  offered — that  the  two  goats  repre- 
sented the  human  and  the  divine  nature  of  Christ;  or  his 
humiliation  and  exaltation  ;  or  his  personal  sufferings  and 
the  contempt  of  men  ;  or  Christ  and  Barabbas. 

(3.)  The  burning  of  the  victim  without  the  camp.  Heb. 
xiii.  11. 

Typical  Significance  of  the  Calendar. 

See  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

CONCLUDING    EEMARKS. 

I.  The  Efficacy  of  the  Mosaic  Eitual. 

(1.)  These  atonements  did  not  purchase  the  pardon  of 
sin.  Heb.  x.  4.     The  place  to  this  effect  in  Isa.  xl.  16  is 


98  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

thus  paraphrased  by  Umbreit :  "  Lebanon  the  altar ;  nature 
the  temple;  its  lordly  woods  the  pile  ;  and  its  countless  beasts 
the  sacrifice ;"  but  all  could  not  put  away  sin. 

(2.)  The  Levitical  purification  did  not  purify  the  soul, 
but  the  flesh  only.  Heb.  ix.  13,  14. 

(3.)  These  ordinances  restored  the  offenders  and  the  un- 
clean to  church  privileges. 

(4.)  They  expiated  certain  civil  offences.  Lev.  iv.  2,  seq. 
But  high  crime  could  not  be  expiated  even  by  these  bloody 
rites. 

(5.)  Sin  as  against  God  was  only  typically  atoned  for  by 
these  rites.  They  pointed  forward  to  a  true  atonement  by 
the  blood  of  Christ  and  a  vital  regeneration  by  the  work 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  analogy  is  found  in  the  Christian 
sacraments.  They  do  not  save  by  any  virtue  in  them — they 
are  the  signs  and  seals  of  what  does  save ;  viz. :  the  work 
of  Christ  and  of  the  Spirit.  The  efficacy  of  the  ritual  may 
be  stated  thus  :  Ceremonial  sin  actually,  moral  sin  typically, 
atoned  for. 

11.  Allowed  Departures  from  the  Ceremonial 

Institutes. 

1.  For  the  strict  law  of  the  sanctuary,  see  Lev.  xvii.  8-9  ; 
Deut.  xii.  1-11.  For  allowed  departures,  see  1  Sam.  xvi. 
5 ;  1  Kings  xviii.  33  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  25. 

2.  For  the  law  of  the  priesthood,  see  Num.  xvi.  40;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  19.  For  the  allowed  departures,  see  offerings 
made  by  David,  Elijah,  Samuel,  Saul,  and  notably  bv  Solo- 
mon in  2  Chron.  i.  6.  None  of  these  men  were  Levitical 
priests. 

3.  For  the  law  of  the  ritual,  compare  the  law  requiring 
blood  with  the  offering  of  the  poor,  a  little  "  fine  flour  "  in 
Lev.  V.  11. 

4.  For  the  law  of  the  calendar,  compare  the  regular  time 
of  the  passover  with  the  appointment  out  of  time  by  Heze- 


CEREMOyiAL  INSTITUTES.  99 

kiah  in  2  Chron.  xxx.  18.  On  the  subject  genenJly,  see 
Lev.  xxiv.  8  ;  1  Sam.  xxi.  6  ;  Num.  ix.  6 ;  Mutt.  xii.  10,  seq. ; 
John  xviii.  28. 

These  departures  from  the  provisions  of  the  law  show — 
(1.)  That  the  law  ascribes  to  its  rites  no  inherent  power  to 
save.  Salvation  was  not  tied  to  any  of  them.  (2.)  The 
rites  were  typical.  Their  significance  as  such  was  not 
marred  by  occasional  departures  from  any  one  or  all  of 
them.  (3.)  The  law  contained  within  itself  signs  of  its  in- 
complete and  provisional  character.  The  law  made  nothing 
perfect.  Heb.  vii.  19.  (4.)  Its  chief  value  was  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  blood  of  Christ,  to  which  salvation  is  tied — a 
salvation  which  is  complete  and  final,  and  from  the  methods 
of  which  there  is  neither  departure  nor  exception. 


BIBLE  HISTORY. 
GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 
ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


BY  THE 

Eev.  WM.  HENEY  green,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


9* 


BIBLE  HISTORY, 


LESSOJV  I. 
FEOM  THE  CKEATION  TO  THE   EXODUS. 

Bible  history  divides  itself  into  two  principal  parts,  viz. : 
the  history  of  the  Old  Testament,  embracing  that  which 
precedes  and  is  preparatory  to  the  coming  of  Christ,  and 
the  history  of  the  New  Testament,  which  records  that  com- 
ing itself,  and  that  which  results  from  it  and  follows  after  it. 

The  history  of  the  preparation  for  Christ's  coming  begins 
with  the  expulsion  of  our  first  parents  from  Eden  and  the 
promise  then  given  (Gen.  iii.  15)  that  the  seed  of  the  woman 
shall  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent.  What  precedes  is 
preliminary,  and  was  needed  to  explain  the  scene  in  which, 
and  the  circumstances  under  which,  this  progressive  victory 
or  this  process  of  redemption  and  recovery  was  to  be  accom- 
plished. The  narrative  of  the  creation  of  the  world  (Gen.  i. 
1-ii.  3)  provides  the  scene ;  man's  being  placed  in  paradise 
(ii.  4-25)  and  his  fall  (ch.  iii.)  supply  the  circumstances. 
The  original  promise  advances  to  its  accomplishment,  first, 
from  Adam  to  Abraham  under  a  general  covenant  embra- 
cing all  mankind  (Gen.  i.-xi.),  and,  secondly,  from  Abraham 
to  Christ  under  a  special  covenant  temporarily  restricted  to 
a  single  family  or  nation  for  the  ultimate  benefit  of  all  the 
families  of  the  earth.  Gen.  xii.  1-3.  The  history  before  Abra- 
ham is  divided  into  the  antediluvian  period  (Gen.  i.-viii.), 
before  the  destruction  of  the  world  by  the  Deluge ;  and  the 
postdiluvian  period,  from  that  time  onward  to  the  call  of 

103 


104  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Abraham.  Gen.  ix.-xi.  The  history  after  Abraham  is 
divided  into  the  patriarchal  or  pre-mosaic  period,  preced- 
ing the  exodus  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt,  during  which  the 
chosen  seed  expanded  from  a  family  to  a  nation  (Gen.  xii.-l.) , 
and  the  history  subsequent  to  the  exodus  or  the  history 
of  Israel  as  the  people  of  God.  The  history  of  the  chosen 
people  is  again  divisible  into  three  principal  periods,  viz. : 
First,  from  the  exodus  to  the  death  of  David,  or  from  the 
organization  of  Israel  as  the  people  of  God  to  the  complete 
establishment  of  the  kingdom.  Second,  from  the  death  of 
David  to  the  Babylonish  exile,  which  continues  the  history 
of  the  kingdom  until  its  downfall.  Third,  from  the  Baby- 
lonish exile  to  the  advent  of  Christ,  during  which  Israel 
was  subject  to  foreign  domination. 

During  the  three  periods  from  Adam  to  Moses,  God's 
revelation  was  given  to  man  only  in  an  oral  form,  and  each 
period  was  distinguished  by  a  divine  covenant  peculiar  to 
itself  and  by  a  specific  promise  of  its  own  of  increasing  defi- 
niteness.  To  the  antediluvian  period  belong  God's  cove- 
nant with  Adam  and  the  promise  respecting  the  seed  of  the 
woman ;  to  the  postdiluvian  period  belong  God's  covenant 
with  Noah  and  the  promise  to  Shem ;  to  the  patriarchal 
period  belong  God's  covenant  with  Abraham  and  its  prom- 
ises, which  were  successively  renewed  with  Isaac  and  with 
Jacob,  and  the  signal  promise  to  Judah.  Gen.  xlix.  8,  ff. 

During  the  three  periods  from  Moses  to  Christ,  God's 
revelation  was  given  not  only  in  an  oral,  but  also  in  a  writ- 
ten, form.  At  the  beginning  of  the  first  period  the  five 
books  of  Moses,  commonly  called  the  Pentateuch,  were 
written.  The  rest  of  the  history  of  this  period,  from  the 
death  of  Moses  to  the  death  of  David,  is  contained  in  what 
might  be  called  a  second  Pentateuch,  or  the  five  books  of 
Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  1st  and  2d  Samuel.  To  the  close  of 
the  first  and  the  beginning  of  the  second  period — that  is  to 
say,  to  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon — belongs  the  greater 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  105 

part  of  what  may  be  called  the  third  Pentateuch,  or  the 
five  books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes  and  the 
Song  of  Solomon.  The  l^ook  of  Lamentations,  though  poet- 
ical, belongs  to  a  later  time,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  sup- 
plement or  appendix  to  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah.  The 
remainder  of  the  inspired  history  of  the  former  dispensa- 
tion, extending  from  the  death  of  David  to  the  end  of  the 
Old  Testament,  is  recorded  in  what  may  be  called  a  fourth 
Pentateuch,  viz. :  1st  and  2d  Kings,  Ezra,  Nehemiah  and 
Esther ;  the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  which  cover  the  same 
period  as  Samuel  and  Kings,  being  supernumerary  and  not 
counted  in  the  estimate  here  made.  The  further  history,  to 
the  time  of  Christ,  is  contained  in  uninspired  though  authen- 
tic writings.  Near  the  close  of  the  second  period  after 
Moses,  and  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  third — that  is  to 
say,  as  the  kingdoms  were  approaching  their  downfall  as 
well  as  in  and  after  the  Babylonish  exile — we  find  what 
may  be  called  a  fifth  Pentateuch,  completing  the  inspired 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz. :  the  four  books  of  the 
major  prophets,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  Daniel,  to- 
gether with  the  collection  of  the  minor  prophets,  which, 
on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  individual  books,  may 
be  reckoned  one,  as  was  usual,  in  fact,  in  all  the  early  cata- 
logues or  lists  of  books  of  Scripture. 

The  history  of  the  New  Testament  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  portions  or  periods,  in  which  we  find  a  like 
repetition  as  before  of  the  two  successive  methods  of  divine 
revelation.  First,  the  life  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  during 
which  the  word  of  God  was  made  known  orally  and  by 
his  own  manifestation  of  himself  in  the  person  of  his  only- 
begotten  Son.  Secondly,  the  history  of  the  apostles  and 
of  the  Church  which  they  founded,  from  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  ascension,  when  divine  revelation  was  continued  by 
means  of  inspired  writings.  The  New  Testament  completes 
itself  in  what  may  be  called  two  Pentateuchs;   the  first 


106  PREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

group  covers  the  history  and  embraces  the  four  Gospels  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  the  secoud  group  includes  the 
didactic  or  prophetic  writings  of  five  apostles,  viz. :  Paul, 
James,  Peter,  John  and  Jude. 

From  the  Ckeation  to  the  Flood. 

In  the  bCj^inning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth 
in  six  days.  The  work  of  the  first  day  was  light;  of  the 
second,  the  firmament;  of  the  third,  the  dry  land  with  its 
products;  of  the  fourth,  the  sun,  moon  and  stars;  of  the 
fifth,  fishes  and  birds ;  of  the  sixth,  land  animals  and  man, 
who  was  created  in  the  image  of  God.  All  was  made  very 
good ;  and  on  the  seventh  day  God  rested  from  his  work 
and  instituted  the  Sabbath  in  commemoration  of  this  fact. 

Man  was  placed  in  the  garden  of  Eden  and  forbidden  to 
eat  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  upon  pain 
of  death.  The  woman,  formed  to  be  his  helper,  was  deceived 
by  the  serpent  and  ate  of  the  forbidden  fruit ;  she  gave  also 
unto  her  husband  with  her,  and  he  did  eat.  They  were  in 
consequence  sentenced  to  return  to  the  ground  from  which 
they  were  taken,  and  were  driven  forth  from  the  garden  lest 
they  should  eat  of  the  tree  of  life  and  live  for  ever.  And 
a  curse  was  pronounced  upon  the  tempter  which  involved  a 
promise  to  the  fallen  race  of  man :  "  I  will  put  enmity 
between  thee  and  the  woman,  and  between  thy  seed  and 
her  seed  ;  it  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bruise  his 
heel."  Gen.  iii.  15.  This  predicted  struggle  began  in  the 
family  of  Adam  when  Cain,  his  first-born,  "  who  was  of 
that  wicked  one"  (John  iii.  12),  slew  his  brother  Abel, 
because  Abel's  offering  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock  was 
accepted  and  Cain's  offering  of  the  first  fruits  of  the  ground 
was  not.  It  came  to  its  climax  when  Christ,  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  by  way  of  eminence,  conquered  Satan  by  his  death. 
It  shall  be  ended  when  Satan  shall  have  been  bruised  under 
the  feet  of  all  of  Christ's  people.  Rom.  xvi.  20. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  107 

Cain  was  driven  forth  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  a 
fugitive  for  his  crime.  Among  his  descendants  we  find 
criminal  excesses  and  worldly  culture — the  first  city,  repre- 
sentative of  secular  power  (Gen.  iv.  17),  the  polygamy  of 
Lamech  (ver.  19),  and  his  bloodthirsty  threats  of  vengeance 
(vs.  23,  24),  tents  and  cattle,  musical  instruments  and  work- 
ing brass  and  iron.  vs.  20-22.  Seth,  who  was  appointed 
instead  of  Abel,  was  the  head  of  a  pious  race.  In  the  days 
of  his  son  Enos  men  began  to  call  upon  the  name  of  the 
Lord.  Enoch,  the  seventh  from  Adam,  walked  with  God, 
and  was  not,  for  God  took  him.  Lamech  piously  looked  for 
a  blessing  in  his  son  Noah.  v.  29.  Noah,  the  tenth  from 
Adam,  was  a  just  man,  perfect  in  his  generations,  and  he 
walked  with  God.  vi.  9. 

But  the  sons  of  God,  or  the  pious  race,  intermarried  with 
the  daughters  of  men,  the  ungodly  descendants  of  Cain  ; 
and  wickedness  so  increased  that  God  at  length,  in  the  600th 
year  of  Noah,  and  according  to  the  common  computation 
1656  years  after  the  creation  of  man,  destroyed  the  world 
by  a  flood.  Only  Noah  and  his  family  were  saved  in  an 
ark  which  he  had  been  directed  to  build,  and  into  which  he 
took  some  of  all  kinds  of  beasts  and  fowl  and  creeping 
things.  The  waters  prevailed  for  five  months,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  ark  rested  on  the  mountains  of  Ararat. 
At  the  end  of  one  year  and  ten  days  the  waters  had  disap- 
peared and  the  ground  was  dried. 

From  the  Flood  to  the  Call  of  Abraham. 

After  this  violent  interruption  the  history  again  proceeds 
with  Noah,  the  second  head  of  the  human  race,  in  whose 
line  a  fresh  experiment  is  instituted,  with  many  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  preceding.  As  there  had  been  a  cove- 
nant with  Adam,  so  there  is  one  with  Noah  pledging  that 
all  flesh  should  never  again  be  destroyed  by  a  flood,  ix.  11. 
The  blessing  is  renewed.  Be  fruitful  and  multiply,  and  re 


108  PREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

plenish  the  earth,  and  dominion  is  again  granted  over  the 
creatures,  ix.  12.  Mention  is  made  as  before  of  the  offer- 
ing of  sacrifice ;  and  that  of  Noah  as  he  came  out  of  the  ark 
is  accepted,  as  Abel's  had  been.  viii.  20.  The  prohibition 
of  murder  plainly  looks  back  to  the  crime  of  Cain.  ix.  6. 
Noah  transgressed  also  (ix.  21),  as  Adam  had  done,  and 
his  son  Ham  is  guilty  of  an  offence  which  severs  him  from 
the  promise  and  leads  to  a  fresh  limitation  of  it  to  the  line 
of  Sheni,  whose  God  the  Lord  would  be  and  in  whose  tents 
he  would  dwell,  ix.  26,  27.  The  progress  of  mankind  in 
this  period,  as  in  the  preceding,  was  once  more  away  from 
God.  As  that  had  ended  with  the  segregation  of  Noah 
and  his  three  sons,  so  this  with  the  call  of  Abraham,  one 
of  Terah's  three  sons  and  the  tenth  in  descent  from  Shem,  to 
found  a  new  race  which  might  be  guarded  from  surround- 
ing contamination,  and  amongst  whom  the  way  might  be 
prepared  for  the  advent  of  the  great  Redeemer.  The  rest 
of  mankind  were  not  in  this  instance  destroyed,  as  by  the 
flood,  but  tefnporarily  passed  by,  with  a  view,  however,  to 
their  future  reception  into  the  kingdom  of  God.  Hence 
the  origin  of  the  various  nations  of  the  world  is  here  re- 
corded (ch.  x.)  as  springing  from  the  three  sons  of  Noah, 
Shem,  Ham  and  Japheth,  of  whom  the  whole  earth  was 
overspread,  ix.  19,  This  was  done  with  a  double,  design : 
first,  that  of  gradually  eliminating  the  divergent  branches, 
in  order  afterward  to  pursue  uninterruptedly  the  line  of 
the  promise  (xi.  10-26);  and,  secondly,  that  of  declaring 
their  afiiliation  with  the  chosen  seed,  to  whom  by  no  right 
of  their  own,  but  by  God's  special  favor,  the  covenant  of  his 
grace  was  temporarily,  and  yet  only  temporarily,  restricted. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  the  rise  of  the  great  empires  of 
Babylon  and  Assyria  (x.  10,  11),  which,  aspiring  to  univer- 
;sal  dominion,  were  doomed  to  fall  with  all  their  successors 
before  that  empire  which  alone  shall  ever  be  truly  univer- 
sal. Dan.  ii.  44.     The  confusion  of  tongues  at  Babel  in  the 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  10.9 

days  of  Peleg  (x.  25),  the  fifth  from  Sheni  (xi.  16),  is  a 
part  of  the  process  of  dispersion  and  separation  which  he- 
longs  to  the  temporary  rejection  of  the  Gentiles.  The 
removal  of  this  restriction  was  symbolized  at  the  beginning 
of  the  new  dispensation  by  the  gift  of  tongues  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  when  men  from  many  lands  were  brought 
together  to  hear  the  gospel  and  the  variety  of  their  lan- 
guages offered  no  obstruction. 

This  period,  according  to  the  common  computation,  covers 
292  years. 

From  the  Call  of  Abraham  to  the  Exodus. 

Abram,  afterward  named  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.  5),  chosen 
to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  peculiar  people  of  God,  was 
severed  from  the  idolatry  of  his  father's  house  (Josh.  xxiv. 
2)  and  his  faith  subjected  to  the  severest  tests.  He  was 
bidden  to  leave  his  country  and  his  kindred  and  go  into  a 
land  that  God  would  show  him  (Gen.  xii.  1),  which  he  did 
in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age,  accompanied  by  Sarai, 
afterward  named  Sarah,  his  wife,  and  Lot,  his  brother's  son. 
The  promise  was  given  him,  and  several  times  repeated,  of 
the  possession  of  Canaan,  of  a  numerous  seed,  and  that  all 
nations  should  be  blessed  in  him.  But  the  land  was  then 
occupied  by  Canaanites;  and  though  Abraham  sojourned 
unmolested  and  erected  altars  at  various  points,  as  Shechem 
(xii.  6,  7),  Bethel  (ver.  8)  and  Hebron  (xiii.  18)  ;  and  digged 
wells,  as  at  Beersheba  (xxi.  30,  31);  and  chastised  the  in- 
vaders who  had  carried  off  Lot  (xiv.  13) ;  and  received  a 
blessing,  as  well  as  the  gift  of  bread  and  wine,  from  Melchiz- 
edek,  king  of  Salem  and  priest  of  the  most  high  God, 
whose  sacred  character  he  recognized  by  paying  him  tithes 
of  his  booty  (vs.  19,  20) ;  and  Lot,  who  had  chosen  the  val- 
ley of  Jordan  as  his  own  (xiii.  10,  11),  abandoned  it  after 
the  destruction  of  Sodom  (xix.  30)  ;  yet  he  never  owned  a 
foot  of  land  (Acts  vii.  5)  excep*  the  burying-place  which 

10 


110  FREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

he  purchased  from  the  sons  of  Heth  for  himself  and  Sarah, 
xxiii.  13,  ff. 

Though  he  had  the  promise  of  posterity,  he  was  long  kept 
waiting  for  its  accomplishment.  He  was  twice  in  danger 
of  losing  his  wife  (xii.  11,  ff. ;  xx.  2,  ff. )  ;  the  steward  of 
his  house  was  looked  upon  as  his  future  heir  (xv.  2,  3) ; 
Ishmael  was  born  to  him  of  Hagar,  but  this  was  not  the 
promised  seed  (xvii.  18,  19) ;  at  length,  after  Isaac  had 
been  born,  in  his  one  hundredth  year  (xxi.  5),  he  was  directed 
to  offer  him  up  in  sacrifice  (ch.  xxii.),  but  at  the  critical 
moment  the  Lord  interfered,  and  substituted  a  ram  for 
Isaac,  approved  Abraham's  faith  and  spared  him  further 
trials. 

Rebekah  was  obtained  from  the  land  of  his  kindred  as  a 
wife  for  Isaac.  Her  elder  son,  Esau,  was  excluded  from  the 
line  of  the  covenant  and  the  promise  restricted  to  Jacob,  who 
fled  from  his  brother's  displeasure  to  Padan-aram,  where 
he  served  Laban  twenty  years  and  married  his  daughters 
Leah  and  Rachel,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  sons.  After  Ja- 
cob's return  to  Canaan  his  favorite  son  Joseph  was  sold  into 
Egypt,  and  subsequently  raised  to  be  chief  in  authority,  next 
to  Pharaoh.  This  prepared  the  way  for  the  removal  of 
Jacob,  also  called  Israel  (xxxii.  28),  with  his  family,  sev- 
enty in  all  (xlvi.  27),  into  Egypt,  215  years  after  Abra- 
ham had  entered  Canaan.  Here  they  were  located  in  the 
fertile  district  of  Goshen,  that  they  might  be  converted  from 
a  nomadic  life  into  one  of  settled  habitation  and  developed 
into  a  numerous  people  under  the  shelter  of  the  most  famous 
empire  then  existing  in  the  world,  and  in  which  the  science 
of  government,  the  useful  arts  and  all  that  pertains  to  re- 
finement and  civilization  had  been  carried  to  the  highest 
measure  of  perfection  then  attained. 

As  the  predicted  time  of  their  return  out  of  Egypt  drew 
nigh  (xv.  13-16)  providential  measures  were  taken  to  effect 
it.     The  multiplication  of  Israel  exciting  jealous  apprehen- 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  Ill 

eions  (Ex.  i.  10),  they  were  subjected  to  hard  bondage  and 
an  ordinance  passed  that  their  male  children  should  be  put 
to  death  as  soon  as  born.  In  these  straits  a  deliverer  was 
born  in  the  person  of  Moses,  who  was  hid  by  his  parents  for 
three  months  and  then  exposed  on  the  brink  of  the  river, 
where  he  was  taken  charge  of  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  who 
had  him  trained  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians.  Acts 
vii.  22.  When  forty  years  old,  he  was  obliged  to  flee  into 
Midian,  and  there  familiarized  with  the  desert  for  forty  years. 
God  then  appeared  to  him  in  the  burning  bush,  and  sent  him, 
with  his  brother  Aaron,  to  demand  of  Pharaoh  that  he  should 
let  the  Lord's  people  go.  Upon  his  refusal  ten  successive 
plagues  were  sent — water  changed  to  blood,  frogs,  lice,  swarms 
of  flies,  murrain,  boils,  hail,  locusts,  darkness,  the  slaying 
of  the  first-born.  The  passover  was  instituted,  and  Israel 
led  forth  600,000  men,  besides  children  and  a  mixed  multi- 
tude (Ex.  xii.  37,  38),  precisely  430  years  after  the  entry 
into  Egypt,  xii.  40,  41.  Pharaoh  pursued  them  with  his 
army,  but  a  passage  was  miraculously  opened  for  Israel 
through  the  Red  Sea,  and  their  pursuers  were  drowned. 


ZESSOJ^  11. 

FKOM  THE  EXODUS  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  DAVID. 

The  chosen  seed  were  now  sufficiently  multiplied ;  they 
were  next  to  be  organized  as  the  people  of  God  and  estab- 
lished in  Canaan.  This  was  accomplished  in  four  succes- 
sive steps :  1.  By  the  covenant  at  Sinai  and  the  legislation 
of  Moses  they  were  constituted  the  people  of  God  and 
placed  under  his  laws.  2.  They  were  put  in  possession  of 
the  promised  land  by  Joshua.  3.  They  were  made  to  feel 
their  lack  of  unity  and  of  a  vigorous  government  in  the 
time  of  the  Judges.     4.  The'r  civil  organization  was  com- 


112  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

pleted  and  the  conquest  of  the  land  perfected  under  Sam- 
uel, Saul  and  David. 

The  people,  brought  safely  through  the  Red  Sea  and  fed 
on  manna,  were  first  led  to  Sinai,  where  the  ten  command- 
ments were  proclaimed  by  God  himself  amidst  awful  pomp 
(Ex.  XX.),  and  the  covenant  was  formally  ratified  between 
him  and  the  people  through  their  representatives,  Moses, 
Aaron  and  his  sons  and  seventy  elders  of  Israel,  xxiv.  1-11. 
Moses  then  went  into  the  mount  for  forty  days  and  nights  to 
receive  the  law  of  God.  The  people,  impatient  at  his  long 
delay,  made  the  golden  calf  and  worshiped  it,  whereupon 
the  Lord  would  have  destroyed  them  but  for  Moses'  urgent 
intercession,  ch.  xxxii.  They  remained  at  Sinai  one  year 
(Num.  x.  11,  12),  during  which  the  tabernacle  was  built,  the 
ritual  was  instituted  and  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  ordained  to 
the  priesthood.  Removing  thence,  they  were  led  by  a  pillar 
of  cloud  and  fire.  Transgression  was  severely  punished  in 
repeated  instances,  as  the  fire  at  Taberah  (xi.  1),  the  plague 
following  the  sending  of  the  quails  (xi.  33)  and  Miriam's 
leprosy  for  contending  with  Moses,  xii.  10.  On  their  arri- 
val at  Kadesh,  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  they  sent  twelve 
spies  to  view  the  land,  at  whose  report  the  people  refused  to 
proceed,  threatening  to  stone  Moses  and  to  go  back  again 
to  Egypt.  They  were  in  consequence  condemned  to  wan- 
der forty  years  in  the  desert,  till  that  entire  generation  had 
perished,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Joshua  and  Caleb  (xiv. 
30),  who  had  brought  a  good  report  of  the  land. 

During  this  term  of  their  banishment  they  were  guilty 
of  gross  trangression  (Ezek.  xx.  13)  and  open  idolatry. 
Amos  V.  25,  26  ;  Acts  vii.  42,  43.  Korah  and  a  company 
of  250  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  rebelled  against  the  exclusive 
priesthood  of  Aaron,  claiming  an  equal  right  to  minister 
at  the  altar,  and  were  supported  in  their  rebellion  by  Da- 
than,  Abiram  and  others  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben ;  but  the 
earth  opened  and  swallowed  up  the  latter,  with  all  that  ap- 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  113 

pertained  to  them,  while  a  fire  blazed  forth  frc  ra  the  Lord 
which  burned  up  the  former  with  their  censers  in  their  hands, 
and  a  plague  broke  out  among  the  people,  destroying  upward 
of  fourteen  thousand  Num.  xvi.  The  divine  choice  of  Aaron 
was  shown  when  twelve  rods  were  laid  up  before  the  Lord, 
one  to  represent  each  tribe,  and  Aaron's  rod  budded  and 
brought  forth  almonds,  ch.  x^ii. 

In  the  first  month  of  the  fortieth  year  the  "whole  congre- 
gation were  again  gathered  at  Kadesh.  xx.  1.  Here  Miriam 
died,  and  Moses  and  Aaron,  failing  to  honor  God  before  the 
rebellious  people  in  bringing  water  out  of  the  rock,  were 
prohibited  from  entering  the  promised  land.  ver.  12.  The 
king  of  Edom  refusing  to  suffer  Israel  to  pass  through  his 
laud,  a  circuit  was  made  around  it,  requiring  them  to  retrace 
their  steps  from  the  southern  border  of  Canaan  to  the  shores 
of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea.  vs.  14,  ff'. 

Aaron  died  at  Mount  Hor.  xx.  28 ;  xxxiii.  38.  The 
murmurs  of  the  people,  who  were  discouraged  because  of 
the  way,  were  punished  by  fiery  serpents,  and  a  brazen 
serpent  erected  upon  a  pole  that  they  who  looked  upon  it 
might  be  healed,  xxi.  19.  Sihou,  king  of  the  Amorites,  and 
Og,  king  of  Bashan,  were  subdued  (xxi.  21,  ff.),  and  their 
territory,  which  lay  east  of  the  Jordan,  was  assigned  to  Keu- 
ben,  Gad  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (xxxii.  33)  on 
condition  of  their  assisting  their  brethren  in  the  conquest 
of  the  remainder  of  the  land.  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  hired 
Balaam  the  soothsayer  to  come  from  Pethor  in  MesojDota-  ' 
mia  and  curse  Israel,  but  his  curse  was  changed  to  a  bless- 
ing ;  and  though  the  Moabites  and  Midianites  through  his 
counsel  enticed  the  people  into  idolatry  and  crime  at  Baal- 
peor,  it  was  severely  avenged  by  a  battle  in  w^hich  Balaam 
and  five  kings  of  Midian  were  slain,  xxxi.  8.  Israel  now 
encamped  in  the  plains  of  Moab.  Here  Moses  rehearsed  to 
them  the  whole  law  in  the  last  month  of  the  fortieth  year 

(Deut.  i.  13),  including  the  promise  (Deut.  xviii.  18),  "  The 
10  • 


114  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Lord  thy  God  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet  from  the 
midst  of  thee,  of  thy  brethren,  like  unto  me."  Comp.  Acts 
iii.  22.  He  then  gave  a  charge  to  Joshua  as  his  successor 
(xxxi.  23),  delivered  the  book  of  the  law  to  the  Levites  to 
be  kept  in  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (vs.  24,  ff.), 
pronounced  a  blessing  upon  the  several  tribes  (eh.  xxxiii.), 
and  went  up  the  mountain  of  Nebo  to  the  top  of  Pisgah, 
where  the  Lord  showed  him  all  the  promised  land,  and  he 
died  there,  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  old. 

2.  To  Joshua  was  committed  the  task  of  conducting 
Israel  into  Canaan,  subduing  the  land,  and  apportioning  it 
among  the  several  tribes.  He  first  sent  two  spies  t®  view 
Jericho,  where  they  were  protected  by  the  harlot  Rahab. 
The  people  were  then  led  through  the  Jordan  on  dry  land, 
and  twelve  stones  taken  from  its  bed  were  laid  up  at  Gilgal, 
their  first  encampment  in  Canaan,  in  commemoration  of  the 
miracle.  Here  the  covenant  with  God  was  renewed  by 
circumcision,  which  had  been  neglected  in  the  wilderuess 
(Josh.  V.  5),  and  by  the  celebration  of  the  passover,  the 
manna,  thenceforth  ceasiug,  as  no  longer  needed.  The  walls 
of  Jericho  were  miraculously  thrown  down,  and  the  place 
pronounced  accursed ;  its  silver  and  gold  and  vessels  of 
brass  and  iron  were  devoted  unto  the  treasury  of  the  Lord, 
and  all  that  were  in  the  city  were  devoted  to  destruction, 
except  Rahab  and  those  who  were  in  her  house.  At  Ai 
the  people  were  repulsed  in  consequence  of  Achan's  tres- 
pass in  the  accursed  thing.  He  had  coveted  and  taken 
from  the  spoils  of  Jericho,  but  his  crime  was  detected  and 
punished,  whereupon  Ai  was  again  assaulted  and  taken. 
An  altar  was  then  erected  in  Mount  Ebal,  and  the  blessings 
and  curses  of  the  law  formally  pronounced  in  the  presence 
of  all  the  people.  The  inhabitants  of  Gibeah,  by  a  success- 
ful stratagem,  made  peace  with  Joshua.  A  combination 
formed  of  five  kings  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  country, 
headed  by  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  was  defeated,  Joshua 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  115 

bidding  the  sun  stand  still  and  prolong  the  day  that  he 
might  complete  the  victory.  A  similar  combination  in  the 
north  was  likewise  utterly  routed  at  the  waters  of  Merom, 
In  about  six  years  the  conquest  of  the  entire  land  was 
effected.  Josh.  xi.  18 ;  comp.  xiv.  7-10. 

The  territory. west  of  the  Jordan  was  then  divided  by 
lot  among  nine  tribes  and  a  half,  and  the  two  tribes  and 
a  half  which  had  a  portion  assigned  them  by  Moses  east 
of  the  Jordan  returned  to  their  inheritance.  Joshua  died 
one  hundred  and  ten  years  old,  and,  according  to  Josephus, 
twenty-five  years  after  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan,  having 
first  assembled  the  tribes  at  Shechem  and  solemnly  bound 
them  to  the  service  of  the  Lord. 

3.  The  people  were  now  organized  under  the  laws  given 
them  by  Moses,  and  put  in  possession  of  the  land  conquered 
by  Joshua.  But  their  civil  organization  had  not  yet  attained 
its  complete  and  final  form,  and  the  conquest  of  the  land 
was  not  thoroughly  perfected.  Much  was  left  to  be  done 
by  each  of  the  tribes  in  its  own  domain,  in  the  further  sub- 
jugation or  extermination  of  their  foes ;  and  this  in  their 
divided  state  it  was  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  accom- 
plish, particularly  as  in  their  repeated  relapses  from  God 
they  were  deprived  of  his  aid  and  given  over  to  the  power 
of  their  enemies.  In  their  times  of  distress,  however,  they 
repented,  and  God  raised  up  special  leaders  or  judges  for 
their  deliverance. 

They  were  thus  oppressed  eight  years  by  Chushan-rish- 
athaim,  king  of  Mesopotamia,  and  rescued  by  Othniel ;  then 
eighteen  years  by  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  who  was  slain,  and 
Israel  delivered  by  Ehud ;  again,  twenty  years  by  Jabin, 
king  of  Hazor,  the  captain  of  whose  host,  Sisera,  was  de- 
feated by  Deborah  and  Barak,  and  slain  by  Jael,  the  wife 
of  Heber  the  Kenite ;  again,  seven  years  by  Midian,  whose 
immense  host  was  discomfited  by  Gideon  with  three  hun- 
dred men.     Gideon's  son,  Abimelech,  slew  his  brothers  and 


116  PREPARING   TO    FEACH. 

had  himself  made  king  of  Shechem,  but  was  himself  slain 
in  the  disturbances  that  arose  at  the  end  of  his  brief  reign 
of  three  years.  The  children  of  Israel  east  of  the  Jordan 
were  oppressed  by  the  Ammonites  eighteen  years  (Judg. 
X.  8),  but  were  delivered  by  Jephthah  the  Gileadite,  who 
vowed  that  if  the  Lord  would  give  him  the  victory,  whatso- 
ever came  forth  from  the  doors  of  his  house  to  meet  him  on 
his  return  should  surely  be  the  Lord's,  and  he  would  ofier 
it  up  for  a  burnt-offering.  As  he  came  back  victorious,  his 
daughter,  who  was  his  only  child,  met  him  with  timbrels 
and  dances,  and  he  did  with  her  according  to  his  vow.  The 
Philistines  in  the  west  oppressed  Israel  forty  years.  A  cham- 
pion was  raised  up  from  the  tribe  of  Dan  in  the  person  of 
Samson  to  begin  the  work  of  deliverance.  His  birth  was 
foretold  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  who  directed  that  he 
should  be  a  perpetual  Nazarite,  and  that  no  razor  should 
ever  come  upon  his  head.  Num.  vi.  5.  As  long  as  he  was 
faithful  to  the  sacred  obligation  thus  enjoined  God  endowed 
him  with  superhuman  strength,  which  he  employed  in  mo- 
lesting or  destroying  the  Philistines.  He  judged  Israel 
twenty  years.  Other  judges  whose  names  are  mentioned, 
but  of  whom  little  is  known,  are  Tola  (x.  1),  Jair  (x.  3), 
Ibzan  (xii.  10),  Elon  (xii.  11)  and  Abdon  (xii.  13),  mak- 
ing, with  Eli  (1  Sam.  iv.  18),  the  entire  number  of  judges  to 
be  twelve. 

The  terms  of  these  twelve  judges,  together  with  the  peri- 
ods of  oppression  and  rest  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Judges, 
amount  to  450  years,  as  stated  Acts  xiii.  20.  But  as  the 
entire  interval  from  the  exodus  to  the  building  of  Solomon's 
temple  was  but  480  years,  all  of  these  periods  cannot  have 
been  successive.  Different  judges  may  have  ruled  or  dif- 
ferent oppressors  may  have  held  sway  in  different  parts  of 
the  land  at  the  same  time.  The  opposite  phases  of  this 
period  are  pictured  in  the  turbulent  lawlessness  of  the  Dan- 
ite  band  (ch.  xviii.)  and  of  the  men  of  Gibeah  (xix.  22),  on 


BIBLE  HISTORy.  117 

the  one  hand,  and  the  charming  piety  and  peaceful  domes- 
tic life  of  Naomi,  Ruth  and  Boaz,  the  ancestors  of  David, 
on  the  other. 

4.  The  times  of  the  judges  had  been  marked  by  three 
great  evils,  viz.,  declension  in  religion,  want  of  unity  among 
the  tribes  and  weakness  before  their  foes.  There  was  press- 
ing need  of  a  religious  reformation,  a  strong  central  gov- 
ernment and  victory  over  their  enemies.  To  accomplish 
these  ends  three  remarkable  men  were  raised  up,  Samuel, 
Saul  and  David.  Samuel,  the  son  of  Hannah  and  Elka- 
nah,  was  the  child  of  prayer  (1  Sam.  i.  27,  28),  and  was 
consecrated  from  his  childhood  to  minister  before  Eli,  the 
priest  of  the  sanctuary,  in  Shiloh  (ii.  11),  where  God  early 
revealed  himself  to  him.  ch.  iii.  The  Philistines  gained 
a  great  victory  over  Israel,  slew  the  degenerate  sons  of  Eli, 
Hophni  and  Phinehas,  and  captured  the  ark  of  God.  But 
their  idol  Dagon  fell  and  was  broken  before  it,  and  plagues 
were  sent  upon  their  cities,  so  that  at  the  end  of  seven 
months  they  were  forced  to  send  it  back  to  the  land  of 
Israel,  where  it  remained  in  obscurity  at  Kirjath-jearim 
until  the  reign  of  David.  Samuel  now  induced  the  people 
to  put  away  their  strange  gods ;  and  gathering  them  to  Miz- 
peh  for  penitent  humiliation  before  the  Lord  and  return  to 
his  service,  he  there  discomfited  the  Philistines,  breaking 
their  power  completely  for  a  time.  vii.  13.  Samuel  w^as  not 
only  himself  a  distinguished  prophet  of  the  Lord,  but  the 
founder  of  a  company  of  prophets  (x.  5 ;  xix.  20)  or  com- 
munity of  inspired  men,  associated  under  his  superintend- 
ence to  oppose  the  prevailing  corruption  ;  and  though  occa- 
sional messages  had  been  sent  by  men  of  God  before  (1  Sam. 
ii.  27 ;  iii.  1),  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  that 
continuous  line  of  prophets  which,  varying  greatly  in  num- 
bers from  time  to  time,  never  entirely  ceased  until  the  close 
of  the  Old  Testament  (Acts  iii.  24),  and  in  which  we  see 
the  preliminary  fulfillment  of  the  promise   made  through 


118  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Moses.  Deut.  xviii.  15.  As  the  special  messenger  of  God 
he  also  assumed  the  riglit  both  to  supersede  the  degenerate 
priesthood  for  the  time,  offering  sacrifices  himself,  though 
not  one  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  to  exercise  the  highest 
civil  authority  by  acting  as  judge. 

His  sons  not  walking  in  his  ways,  the  elders  of  Israel  so- 
licited the  appointment  of  a  king.  1  Sam.  viii.  5.  Samuel 
rightly  saw  in  this  request  that  they  might  be  "  like  all  the 
nations"  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  Lord  who  was  their 
King.  X.  19  ;  xii.  12.  Although  it  was  the  divine  intention 
that  Israel  should  have  a  kingly  government,  and  express 
provision  had  been  made  for  it  in  the  law  of  Moses  (Deut. 
xvii.  14),  nevertheless,  in  the  form  in  which  the  request  was 
made  and  in  the  disposition  of  those  making  it,  it  was  a 
virtual  rejection  of  the  Lord  from  reigning  over  them. 
1  Sam.  viii.  7.  The  Lord  accedes  to  their  request,  but  suflTers 
them  in  the  first  instance  to  experience  in  Saul  what  it  is  to 
have  a  king  without  him,  before  he  bestows  upon  them  in 
David  a  king  after  his  own  heart.  Saul  was  first  anointed 
privately  by  Samuel  (x.  1)  and  then  chosen  by  lot  at  Miz- 
peh.  X.  21.  His  assumption  of  royalty  was  signalized  by 
a  victory  over  the  Ammonites,  which  at  once  gained  him 
the  hearts  of  the  people.  In  his  second  year  Saul  renewed 
the  war  against  the  Philistines,  who  assembled  an  immense 
host.  The  men  of  Israel  were  scattering  from  Saul,  some 
hiding,  some  fleeing,  and  the  few  that  followed  him  were  trem- 
bling. As  Samuel  failed  to  reach  Gilgal  at  the  appointed 
time,  Saul  offered  the  sacrifice  himself,  and  for  his  presump- 
tion in  so  doing  was  rebuked  by  Samuel  and  threatened 
with  the  forfeiture  of  his  kingdom.  Saul's  men  were  now 
reduced  to  six  hundred.  His  son,  Jonathan,  and  his  armor- 
bearer,  adventuring  upon  the  garrison  of  the  Philistines 
alone,  created  a  panic,  which  finally  grew  into  an  utter  rout. 
Saul  was  likewise  victorious  over  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom  and 
other  foes,  and  was  sent  against  the  Amalekites  with  the 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  119 

charge  that  he  sh(vuld  utterly  destroy  them.  But  he  spared 
their  king  and  the  chief  of  the  spoil,  for  which  fresh  act 
of  disobedience  Samuel  plainly  told  him  that  the  kingdom 
should  be  rent  from  him  and  given  to  another. 

Samuel  accordingly  anointed  David,  the  youngest  son  of 
Jesse  the  Bethlehemite,  and  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  upon 
David  and  departed  from  Saul,  and  an  evil  spirit  from  the 
Lord  troubled  him.  David,  being  a  skillful  player  on  the 
harp,  was  sent  for  to  relieve  his  gloom,  but  his  slaying  Goliath 
and  the  popular  rejoicing  over  that  event  awakened  Saul's 
jealousy,  so  that  he  sought  his  life.  He  threw  his  javelin 
at  him  to  kill  him  ;  he  gave  him  a  position  in  the  army,  hop- 
ing that  he  might  fall  in  battle,  but  this  only  gave  David  an 
opportunity  to  distinguish  himself  still  more.  Saul  married 
his  daughter  to  him  that  he  might  more  easily  ensnare  him ; 
he  sent  assassins  to  his  house  to  kill  him  ;  he  massacred  the 
priests  because  one  of  their  number  had  furnished  him  sup- 
plies ;  he  pursued  him  with  an  armed  force  into  the  wilder- 
ness and  mountain  fastnesses,  where  David  was  repeatedly  in 
imminent  danger  of  being  captured,  but  escaped  by  provi- 
dential interposition.  Twice  he  had  Saul  in  his  power  and 
magnanimously  spared  his  life,  but  the  softening  effect  upon 
the  king  was  only  temporary.  At  length  David  was  obliged 
to  flee  to  the  Philistines  and  put  himself  under  the  protection 
of  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  where  he  was  when  Saul  perished 
with  his  three  sons  in  the  disastrous  battle  with  the  Philis- 
tines at  Mount  Gilboa. 

David  was  now  made  king  over  Judah  in  Hebron,  where 
he  reigned  seven  years  and  six  months.  The  remaining 
tribes  attached  themselves  to  Ishbosbeth,  the  son  of  Saul, 
who  was  king  in  Mahanaim,  and  reigned  there  two  years. 
After  his  murder  all  the  tribes  submitted  to  David,  who 
captured  Jerusalem  from  the  Jebusites  and  established  his 
capital  there,  and  had  the  ark  of  the  Lord  brought  thither 
from  Kirjath-jearim  with  great  pomp.     It  was  his  purpose 


120  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

to  have  built  a  temple,  but  this  was  reserved  for  his  son, 
Solomon.  He,  however,  gathered  abundant  materials  and 
resources  for  the  work  in  his  numerous  wars,  in  which  he 
was  everywhere  successful  against  foreign  foes.  He  also 
prepared  its  plan  (1  Chrou.  xxviii.  11, 12)  and  designated  its 
site  (1  Chron.  xxii.  1),  which  he  purchased  from  Araunah  the 
Jebusite,  and  where  he  offered  an  accepted  sacrifice  in  time 
of  pestilence.  His  care  for  the  sanctuary  was  further 
shown  by  his  division  of  the  priests  into  regular  courses 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  3,  ff.),  by  his  arrangements  for  musical  per- 
formance (1  Chron.  xxv.),  and  by  his  composition  of  those 
Psalms  which  earned  him  the  name  of  the  "  sweet  Psalmist 
of  Israel."  2  Sam.  xxiii.  1. 

The  great  stain  upon  David's  life  is  the  affair  of  Bath- 
sheba,  whom  he  took  for  his  own  wife,  having  procured  the 
death  of  her  husband,  Uriah,  in  battle.  2  Sam.  xi.  14,  15. 
From  this  time  he  was  visited  by  the  most  serious  domestic 
calamities — the  death  of  his  infant  child  (xii.  16,  ff.),  the 
disgrace  of  his  daughter  Tamar  (xiii.  19),  the  murder  of  his 
son  Amnon  by  Absalom  (xiii.  28,  29),  and  the  rebellion  of 
Absalom  (xv.  10),  during  which  he  was  forced  to  flee  from 
Jerusalem  and  seek  refuge  beyond  Jordan.  In  the  battle 
that  ensued  Absalom  was  slain  ;  but  a  quarrel  arising  be- 
tween Judah  and  the  other  tribes  respecting  the  restoration 
of  the  king  to  his  capital,  a  fresh  revolt  followed  under 
Sheba,  son  of  Bichri,  which  was  speedily  quelled  and  Sheba 
slain.  In  his  later  years  his  son  Adonijah  sought  to  seize 
upon  the  kingdom  (1  Kings  i.  5,  ff.),  but  by  David's  direc- 
tion Solomon  was  anointed  king  and  established  upon  liis 
throne. 

David  died  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  reign  (1  Kings 
ii.  11),  leaving  the  k  ngdom  at  the  summit  of  its  prosperity 
and  power. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  121 

LESSOJS^  III. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  DAVID  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF 

CHRIST. 

The  reign  of  Solomon  was  one  of  peaceful  splendor,  and 
contrasts  strongly  with  the  numerous  wars  of  his  father. 
It  presents  a  type  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  in  its  extensive 
sway  and  prosperous  abundance  (Ps.  Ixxii.),  as  the  reign  of 
David  does  of  its  victories  and  of  its  triumphing  over  all 
opposition.  Ps.  ii.  When  offered  by  the  Lord  his  choice 
of  blessings,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Solomon  chose 
an  understanding  heart ;  and  the  Lord  gave  him  the  wis- 
dom for  which  he  asked,  and  added  to  it  riches  and  honor. 
His  most  noted  enterprise  was  the  building  of  the  temple, 
which  was  begun  in  his  fourth  year,  and  finished  in  seven 
years.  At  its  dedication,  which  was  celebrated  with  much 
pomp,  the  cloud  of  the  divine  glory  filled  the  house  so  that 
the  priests  could  not  stand  to  minister  because  of  it.  He 
also  built  a  palace  for  himself,  which  he  was  thirteen  years 
in  erecting,  and  numerous  other  structures,  upon  a  scale  of 
lavish  magnificence.  1  Kings  vii.  2,  ff. ;  ix.  17,  ff.  This  vast 
expenditure  was  provided  for  in  part  by  the  treasures  accu- 
mulated by  his  father  and  by  his  lucrative  foreign  trade  (ix. 
26 ;  x.  21-27),  but  it  likewise  imposed  oppressive  burdens 
upon  the  people.  He  also  contracted  numerous  marriages 
with  foreign  princesses  (xi.  1),  who  led  him  into  idolatry 
in  his  later  years. 

After  a  reign  of  forty  years,  Solomon  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Rehoboam,  whose  insane  refusal  to  lighten  the  exac- 
tions imposed  by  his  father  led  to  the  permanent  division  of 
the  kingdom.  Ten  tribes  rebelled  against  the  house  of 
David  and  chose  Jeroboam  king,  so  that  from  this  time  for- 
ward there  were  the  two  rival,  and  commonly  hostile,  king- 
doms of  Israel  and  Judah. ' 

The  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  of  the  ten  tribes,  continued 
11 


122  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

two  hundred  and  fifty-four  years  from  the  schism  of  Jero- 
boam, B.  C.  975,  to  its  overthrow  by  Shahnaneser,  king  of 
Assyria,  B.  C.  721.  Twenty  persons  in  all  sat  upon  the 
throne,  or  were  aspirants  to  it. 

1.  Jeroboam  I.,  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  reigned  twenty- 
two  years;  2.  his  son,  Nadab,  two  years;  3.  conspired 
against  by  Baasha,  twenty-four  years;  4.  his  son,  Elah, 
two  years;  5.  conspired  against  by  Zimri,  seven  days; 
rival  aspirants,  6.  Tibni,  who  was  defeated,  and  7.  Orari, 
the  choice  of  the  army,  who  was  successful,  twelve  years ; 
8.  his  son,  Ahab,  twenty-two  years ;  9.  his  sons,  Ahaziah, 
two  years,  and  10.  Jehoram,  twelve  years;  11.  Jehu, 
anointed  by  divine  command,  twenty  years  ;  12.  his  son, 
Jehoahaz,  seventeen  years ;  13.  his  son,  Joash,  sixteen  years ; 
14.  his  son,  Jeroboam  II.,  forty-one  years;  15.  his  son, 
Zachariah,  six  months ;  16.  conspired  against  by  Shallum, 
one  month;  17.  conspired  against  by  Menahem,  ten  years; 
18.  his  son,  Pekahiah,  two  years;  19.  conspired  against  by 
Pekah,  twenty  years ;  20.  conspired  against  by  Hoshea, 
nine  years.  There  seems  also  to  have  been  an  interregnum 
or  period  of  anarchy  after  Jeroboam  II.,  and  another  after 
Pekah.  Eight  kings  reached  the  throne  by  successful  con- 
spiracy and  slaying  their  predecessors.  The  crown  was  in 
but  two  instances  transmitted  from  father  to  son  beyond  a 
single  generation,  viz.,  by  Omri  to  the  second  generation, 
and  by  Jehu  to  the  fourth,  as  had  been  particularly  pre- 
dicted. 2  Kings  X.  30.  All  these  kings  were  wicked,  follow- 
ing as  they  did  in  the  track  of  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat, 
who  made  Israel  to  sin  by  establishing  the  worship  of  the 
golden  calves  at  Bethel  and  at  Dan  to  prevent  the  people 
from  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  worship  and  so  coming  again 
under  the  dominion  of  the  house  of  David.  This  was  not 
an  open  renunciation  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  but  the 
calves  were  set  up  professedly  as  symbols  of  the  God  who 
had  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt.  1  Kings  xii.  28. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  123 

The  allusions  in  the  prophets  show  that  the  annual  feasts, 
new  moons,  Sabbaths,  legal  sacrifices  and  other  Mosaic  reg- 
ulations (Hos.  ii.  11)  remained  in  full  force;  only  the  time 
of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  was  changed  from  the  seventh 
to  the  eighth  month,  and  priests  were  ordained,  not  from  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  but  from  the  lowest  of  the  people,  vs.  31,  32. 

The  worst  of  all  the  kings  was  Ahab,  the  son  of  Omri, 
the  builder  of  Samaria,  who  with  his  wife  Jezebel,  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Zidonians,  introduced  the 
open  and  avowed  worship  of  heathen  divinities,  Baal  and 
Ashtaroth,  put  to  death  the  prophets  of  the  Lord  and  per- 
petrated other  deeds  of  violence  and  oppression,  as  the 
murder  of  Naboth  in  order  that  they  might  seize  uj)on  his 
vineyard,  though  even  in  this  time  of  the  grossest  apos- 
tasy there  was  a  pious  Obadiah  in  the  very  palace  (1  Kings 
xviii.  3),  and  there  were  seven  thousand  who  had  not  bowed 
the  knee  unto  Baal.  xix.  18.  Elijah  was  sent  repeatedly 
to  confront  Ahab,  and  by  the  predicted  drought,  and  the 
miracle  at  Carmel  of  fire  from  heaven  consuming  the  sac- 
rifice, began  a  reaction.  Ahab  was  slain  in  battle  at 
Ramoth-gilead.  His  son  Jehoram  (2  Kings  iii.  2)  removed 
the  image  of  Baal ;  and  Baal-worship  was  entirely  extir- 
pated by  Jehu  (x.  18,  ff.),  though  the  worship  of  the  calves 
remained.  Elisha  succeeded  Elijah  after  his  translation  with 
a  like  ministry  of  power.  Communities  of  sons  or  pupils 
of  the  prophets  were  established  at  such  seats  of  idolatry 
as  Bethel,  Jericho  and  Gilgal.  The  prophets  Hosea,  Amos 
and  Jonah  were  raised  up  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II., 
under  whom  the  ten  tribes  reached  their  highest  prosperity 
and  power,  but  they  were  unable  to  turn  back  the  tide  of 
corruption  or  to  eflfect  a  genuine  reformation,  and  the  king- 
dom hastened  to  its  downfall. 

Israel  had  been  repeatedly  and  sorely  pressed  by  the 
Syrians,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of  Ahab  (1  Kings,  ch. 
XX.),  Jehoram  (2  Kings  vi.  2-4,  ff.)  and  Jehcahaz.  2  Kings 


124  PREPARING   TO   TEACIL 

xiii.  3.  In  the  reign  of  Menahem  we  first  read  of  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Assyrians  under  Pul  (2  Kings  xv.  19)  ;  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah,  Tiglath-pileser  carried  captive  the  northern 
portion  of  the  kingdom  and  all  that  lay  east  of  the  Jordan. 
2  Kings  XV.  29  ;  1  Chron.  v.  26.  Shalmaneser,  after  besieg- 
ing Samaria  three  years,  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  entirely 
in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea,  and  the  people  were  carried 
into  Assyria;  and  the  finishing  stroke  was  put  to  its  desola- 
tion by  the  subsequent  introduction  of  heathen  colonists  (2 
Kings  xvii.  24),  from  whom  the  Samaritans  of  a  later  pe- 
riod were  descended. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  lasted  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  years  from  the  schism  to  its  overthrow  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, B.  C.  588.  The  number  of  monarchs  in  this  as  in 
the  other  kingdom  was  twenty,  viz. :  1.  Rehoboam,  who 
reigned  seventeen  years ;  2.  Abijah,  three  years ;  3.  Asa, 
forty-one  years ;  4.  Jehoshaphat,  twenty-five  years ;  5.  Jeho- 
ram,  eight  years  ;  6.  Ahaziah,  one  year ;  7.  Athaliah,  six 
years ;  8.  Joash,  forty  years ;  9.  Amaziah,  twenty-nine 
years  ;  10.  Azariah,  also  called  Uzziah,  fifty-two  years  ;  11. 
Jotham,  sixteen  years ;  12.  Ahaz,  sixteen  years  ;  13.  Heze- 
kiah,  twenty-nine  years ;  14.  Manasseh,  fifty-five  years ;  15. 
Amon,  two  years ;  16.  Josiah,  thirty-one  years ;  17.  Jehoahaz, 
three  months;  18.  Jehoiakim,  eleven  years ;  19.  Jehoiachin, 
three  months  and  ten  days ;  20.  Zedekiah,  eleven  years. 

The  crown  descended  regularly  throughout  the  whole  line 
from  father  to  son  with  the  exception,  first,  of  the  usurpa- 
tion of  Queen  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab,  who  seized 
the  throne  upon  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah  and  sought  to 
destroy  all  the  blood  royal.  Joash  was  saved  from  the  mas- 
sacre, however,  and  after  being  concealed  for  six  years  in 
the  house  of  the  Lord  by  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  was  made 
king,  and  Athaliah  slain.  The  other  exception  is  that  of 
the  last  four  kings  ;  three — viz.,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim  and 
Zedekiah — were    brothers,   the   sons    of  Josiah.      Of   the 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  125 

kings  of  Judah,  three  fell  victims  to  ccnspiracies  among 
their  own  subjects,  viz.,  Joash,  Amaziah  and  Amon ;  three 
died  in  captivity,  Jehoahaz  in  Egypt,  Jehoiakim  and  Zede- 
kiah  in  Babylon.  Ahaziah  was  slain  by  Jehu,  king  of 
Israel,  and  Josiah  fell  in  the  battle  of  Megiddo,  fighting 
against  Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt. 

In  point  of  character  the  kings  of  Judah  are  divided  into 
three  classes;  first,  four  who  are  commended  as  having 
done  that  which  was  right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  as  did 
David  their  father,  viz.,  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah  ;  secondly,  four  who  did  that  which  was  right  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord,  yet  not  like  David  their  father,  viz., 
Joash,  Amaziah,  Uzziah  and  Jotham  ;  thirdly,  all  the  rest 
did  evil  in  the  sight  of  tlie  Lord,  practicing  idolatry  and 
the  abominations  of  the  heathen.  Remarkable  instances 
of  change  for  the  better  and  the  worse  are  afforded  by  the 
case  of  Manasseh,  who,  after  practicing  the  grossest  idolatry 
and  the  most  revolting  cruelty,  repented  in  captivity  and 
at  his  restoration  began  to  act  the  part  of  a  reformer  ;  and 
by  that  of  Joosh,  who  did  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight 
of  the  Lord  while  Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  lived,  but  after- 
ward fell  into  the  practice  of  idolatry.  In  point  of  politi- 
cal wisdom  and  prosperity,  the  best  reigns  were  not  uni- 
formly those  of  the  best  kings.  This  double  honor  be- 
longs, it  is  true,  to  Asa  and  his  son  Jehoshaphat,  but  the 
reign  of  the  pious  Hezekiah  was  marred  by  great  defects 
and  errors  of  a  worldly  nature,  and  in  this  respect  was 
greatly  inferior  to  those  of  his  grandfather  Jotham  aud  his 
great-grandfather  Uzziah,  who  were  morally  far  below  him. 
The  reign  of  Ahaz  was  at  once  the  weakest  and  the  worst, 
if  we  except  the  four  with  which  the  history  concludes,  and 
during  which  the  power  was  really  exercised  by  foreign 
states. 

Apostasy  was  inherent  in  the  very  existence  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  but  it  was  not  so  in  Judah.    Though  idolatry 
11* 


126  PREPARING    TO    T,:ACH. 

was  encouraged  in  all  the  ungodly  reigns,  and  Ahaz(2  Kings 
xvi.lO,  fF.)  and  Manasseh  (2  Kings  xxi.4,  ff.)  especially  pro- 
faned the  temple  of  God  itself  by  setting  up  heathen  altars  or 
objects  of  worship  within  its  sacred  precincts,  yet  upon  every 
return  of  pious  princes  to  the  throne  a  reformation  was 
wrought  more  or  less  thorough  and  effective,  and  the  temple 
was  cleansed,  repaired  and  restored  to  its  legitimate  use. 
Thus  by  Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv.  8, 16),  Joash  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  17 ; 
xxiv.  4),  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  3)  and  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  3,  8),  under  the  last  of  whom  mention  is  made  of 
finding  in  the  temple,  after  long  neglect,  "  the  book  of  the 
law"  (verse  15),  probably  the  identical  copy  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Moses  which  had  been  delivered  by  him  to  the 
Levites  for  safekeeping,  and  had  from  that  time  forward 
been  preserved  in  the  sanctuary.  And  though  the  ser- 
vility of  the  priesthood  to  wicked  rulers  is  shown  in  the 
case  of  Urijah  (2  Kings  xiv.  16),  and  the  transgressions 
of  the  priests  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14)  contributed  to  the  down- 
fall of  the  kingdom,  there  are  noble  instances  in  which 
their  power  for  good  was  shown,  as  in  Jehoiada  during  the 
usurpation  of  Athaliah  and  the  former  part  of  the  reign 
of  Joash  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  16 ;  xxiv.  2),  and  in  Azariah  and 
his  associates,  who  withstood  Uzziah  in  his  profane  in- 
trusion into  the  temple  to  burn  incense.  2  Chron  xxvi.  16,  ff. 
There  was  a  continuous  line  of  prophets,  also,  not  so  re 
markably  endowed  as  Elijah  and  Elisha  with  miraculous 
power,  for  which  there  was  not  so  imperative  a  call,  yet  ever 
appearing  at  important  crises  and  exerting  a  constant  in- 
fluence for  good,  as  Shemaiah  under  Rehoboam  (2  Chron  xii. 
5) ;  Azariah  under  Asa  (xiv.  1) ;  Jehu  (xix.  2),  Jahaziel  (xx. 
14)  andEliezer  (verse  37)  under  Jehoshaphat;  Isaiah  (Isa.  i. 
1)  under  Uzziah  and  his  successors.  Yet  their  messages  were 
frequently  neglected  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  9),  and  the  prophets 
themselves  were  sometimes  subjected  to  personal  ill-treat- 
ment, as  Hanani  was   imprisoned   by  Asa  (2  Chron.  xvi. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  127 

iO)  ;  Zecluiriah  was  stoned  in  the  court  of  the  temple  (xxiv. 
20)  ;  Urijali  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
xxvi.  20-24),  and  Jeremiah  was  beaten  and  put  in  the  stocks 
(Jer.  XX.  2),  thrust  into  a  filthy  dungeon  (Jer.  xxxviii.  6),  his 
life  repeatedly  threatened  (Jer.  xxvi.  8  ;  xxxvi.  26),  and  he 
was  in  prison  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Jer.  xxxix.  14. 

Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  invaded  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Kehoboam,  and  plundered  the  temple  as  well  as  the  palace 
of  the  king.  1  Kings  xiv.  25.  Under  Asa,  Zerah  the 
Ethiopian,  with  his  immense  host,  was  defeated  (2  Chron. 
xiv.  9,  ff.),  as  was  the  formidable  combination  of  Moab,  Aia- 
mon  and  others,  under  Jehoshaphat.  2  Chron.  xx.  Up  to 
the  time  of  Jehoshaphat  there  had  been  constant  war  be- 
tween Judah  and  Israel.  1  Kings  xxii.  44.  His  ill-judged 
and  disastrous  alliance  with  Ahab  resulted  in  the  marriao;e 
of  his  son  Jehorara  with  Ahab's  daughter  (2  Chron.  xxi.  6) 
and  all  the  consequences  of  that  vicious  association.  Un- 
der Amaziah  we  again  find  a  state  of  hostility  existing  and 
Judah  worsted  before  Israel.  2  Kings  xiv.  12.  Asa  had 
hired  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  to  attack  Israel  in  the  in- 
terest of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvi.  2),  and  Joash  had  purchased 
peace  from  Hazael  of  Syria  at  great  cost.  2  Kings  xii.  17, 
18.  But  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  Reziu  of  Syria  and  Pekah 
of  Israel  united  their  forces  against  Judah,  and  created  such 
alarm  (2  Kings  xvi.  5 ;  Isa.  vii.  2)  that,  in  spite  of  the  re- 
monstrances of  Isaiah,  the  weak-minded  monarch  besought 
the  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria.  That  ambitious 
power,  having  accomplished  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  directed  its  designs  against  Judah,  and  Sennach- 
erib came  up  with  an  immense  host  against  Hezekiah,  but 
was  miraculously  overthrown.  2  Kings  xix.  35.  Hezekiah, 
being  congratulated  by  the  king  of  Babylon  on  his  recovery 
from  sickness,  was  guilty  of  the  vanity  and  imjDrudence  of 
exhibiting  all  his  treasures,  whereupon  he  wa^*  warned  by 


128  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

the  prophet  Isaiah  that  they  should  all  be  carried  captive 
to  Babylon.  2  Kings  xx.  12,  ff.  Palestine,  lying,  as  it  did, 
between  Babylon  and  Egypt,  was  alternately  the  prey  of  each 
of  these  great  powers,  who  were  contesting  the  empire  of  the 
world.  Josiah  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  Pharaoh-necho. 
2  Kings  xxiii.  29.  His  son  Jehoahaz  was  carried  captive 
into  Egypt.  In  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim,  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king  of  Babylon,  marched  against  Jerusalem,  taking 
it  in  his  fourth  year,  and  carrying  away  many  captives, 
Daniel  among  the  rest.  Dan.  i.  1.  It  is  from  this  first  de- 
portation, B.C.  606,  that  the  seventy  years  of  captivity  pre- 
dicted by  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxv.  1,  11)  are  to  be  computed. 
The  second  deportation  put  an  end  to  the  reign  of  King  Jeho- 
iachin,  who  was  carried  into  captivity,  together  with  many  of 
the  better  portion  of  the  people.  2  Kings  xxiv.  12.  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah,  and  the  mass  of  its  inhabitants  were  led 
away  into  exile.  The  wretched  remnant  that  stayed  be- 
hind in  the  land  of  Judah  were  placed  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Gedaliah,  and  after  his  murder  they  removed  into 
Egypt. 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  the  conqueror  of  Babylon,  issued 
an  edict  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  B.  C.  536,  permitting 
the  Jewish  exiles  to  return  to  their  own  land.  Accordingly, 
42,000  of  them  returned  under  Zerubbabel,  a  prince  of  the 
house  of  David,  and  Joshua,  the  high  priest.  After  many 
hindrances,  they  completed  the  building  of  the  temple  in 
the  sixth  year  of  Darius,  B.  C.  516.  Jerusalem  still  lay  in 
ruins,  however,  and  its  walls  were  not  rebuilt  until  Ezra, 
and  after  him  Nehemiah,  came  up  with  fresh  colonists  in  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimauus.  The  incidents  recorded  in 
the  book  of  Esther  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Ahasuerus 
(Esth.  i.  1),  otherwise  known  as  Xerxes,  the  son  of  Darius. 

The  Persian  monarchy  was  overthrown  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  was  personally  favorable  to  the  Jews.     On  the 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  129 

partition  of  his  empire  Palestine  fell  under  the  control  of 
the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt,  who  granted  the  Jews  many  priv- 
ileges and  protected  them  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion. 
After  many  fluctuations,  it  was  flnally  subjected  to  the  king 
of  Syria,  who  treated  the  Jews  with  great  severity.  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes,  in  particular,  plundered  and  polluted  the 
temple,  and  endeavored  by  the  most  cruel  atrocities  to  com- 
pel the  Jews  to  adopt  heathen  customs  and  to  engage  in 
heathen  rites.  Mattathias  raised  the  standard  of  revolt, 
and  under  his  leadership  and  that  of  his  noble  sous  Judas 
Maccabeus,  Jonathan  and  Simon,  the  Jews  contended  suc- 
cessfully against  the  armies  of  Antiochus. 

After  cleansing  the  sanctuary  and  building  a  new  altar, 
the  first  sacrifice  w^as  offered  on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  the 
ninth  month,  Chisleu,  B.  C.  165,  just  three  years  after  its  pro- 
fanation. In  memory  of  that  event  the  feast  of  dedication 
(John  X.  22)  was  observed  upon  the  annivei-sary  of  this  day 
and  the  seven  following  days. 

Simon  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  Hyrcanus,  and  he 
by  his  son  Aristobulus,  B.  C.  106.  Dissensions  arising  among 
his  descendants  relative  to  the  succession,  the  Romans,  under 
Pompey,  entered  Jerusalem,  B.  C.  63,  and  established  Hyr- 
canus II.,  the  grandson  of  Aristobulus,  in  supreme  authority. 
Under  his  weak  government  the  Idumean  Antipater  rose  to 
power,  and  was  by  Julius  Caesar  advanced  to  the  dignity  of 
procurator  of  Judea,  B.  C.  47.  His  son  Herod  the  Great 
wani-made  king  of  Judea  by  the  order  of  the  Rorian  senate, 
B.  C.  40.     Under  his  reiorn  Christ  was  born. 


130  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

LESSOJT  IV. 
THE  LIFE  OF  CHRIST. 

The  prophet  Isaiah  annoimces  (xL  3),  a  voice  crying  in 
the  wilderness,  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord.  And 
Malachi  (iii.  1 ;  iv.  5)  predicts  the  mission  of  Elijah  the 
projDhet  as  a  messenger  to  prepare  the  way  before  the  Lord 
at  his  coming.  This  forerunner  was  the  son  of  a  priest 
named  Zacharias,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Herod  the  king, 
and  whose  wife's  name  was  Elizabeth.  As  he  was  burning 
incense  in  the  temple  an  angel  appeared  to  him  and  said, 
"  Thy  wife  Elizabeth  shall  bear  thee  a  son,  and  thou  shalt 
call  his  name  John ;  and  he  shall  be  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  many  of  the  children  of  Israel  shall  he  turn  to 
the  Lord  their  God,  and  he  shall  go  before  him  in  the  spirit 
and  power  of  Elias  (or  Elijah)  to  make  ready  a  people 
prepared  for  the  Lord." 

Six  months  later  the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  to  Nazareth, 
to  a  virgin  espoused  to  a  man  whose  name  was  Joseph,  of  the 
house  of  David ;  and  the  virgin's  name  was  Mary.  And 
the  angel  said  unto  her  "Fear  not,  Mary;  for  thou  hast 
found  favor  with  God.  And,  behold,  thou  shalt  conceive 
and  bring  forth  a  son,  and  shalt  call  his  name  Jesus.  He 
shall  be  great,  and  shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Highest ; 
and  the  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the  throne  of  his 
father  David,  and  of  his  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end." 

A  decree  from  Caesar  Augustus  that  all  the  world  should 
be  taxed  required  Joseph  to  go  with  Mary  to  Bethlehem, 
his  ancestral  city.  There  Jesus  was  born,  and  was  laid 
in  a  manger,  because  there  was  no  room  for  them  in  the 
inn.  His  birth  was  announced  by  an  angel  to  the  shep- 
herds, when  suddenly  a  multitude  of  the  heavenly  host 
were  heard  praising  God  and  saying,  "  Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest,  and  on  earth  peace,  good-will  tc  ward  men."     When 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  13 J 

presented  in  the  temple  in  his  infiincy,  he  was  recognized  as 
the  Lord's  Christ  by  the  aged  Simeon  and  the  prophetess 
Anna.  Wise  men  from  the  east  also  came  seeking  him 
who  was  born  King  of  the  Jews.  Herod,  startled  by  their 
inquiry,  sent  them  to  Bethlehem,  the  predicted  place  of  the 
Saviour's  birth  (Mic.  v.  2),  charging  them  to  return  when 
they  had  found  the  infant  king,  and  tell  him,  that  he  might 
come  and  worship  him  also.  But  being  warned  of  God  in 
a  dream,  they  departed  into  their  own  country  another  way. 
Joseph  was  likewise  warned  to  take  the  young  child  and  his 
mother  and  flee  into  Egypt.  Herod,  finding  that  he  was 
mocked  of  the  wise  men,  sent  forth  and  slew  all  the  chil- 
dren in  Bethlehem  from  two  years  old  and  under.  After 
the  death  of  Herod  the  parents  of  Jesus  brought  him  to 
Nazareth.  When  he  was  twelve  years  old,  he  was  taken  to 
Jerusalem,  to  the  passover  ;  and  lingering  behind  when  his 
parents  returned,  he  was  found  in  the  temple,  sitting  in  the 
midst  of  the  doctors,  both  hearing  them  and  asking  them 
questions.  And  all  that  heard  him  were  astonished  at  his 
understanding  and  answers. 

In  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  Cresar,  the  successor  of 
Augustus,  Pontius  Pilate  being  governor  of  Judea,  Herod 
Antipas,  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  being  tetrarch  of  Galilee, 
and  Annas  and  Caiaphas  being  the  high  priests,  John  the 
Baptist  came  preaching  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea,  Repent 
ye,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand.  Great  multi- 
tudes from  all  quarters  flocked  to  hear  him,  and  were  iLap- 
tized  of  him  in  Jordan,  confessing  their  sins.  Jesus  also, 
being  now  thirty  years  of  age,  came  from  Nazareth,  and  was 
baptized,  whereupon  the  heavens  opened  and  the  Spirit  of 
God  descended  upon  him  like  a  dove,  and  there  came 
a  voice  from  heaven,  saying,  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in 
whom  I  am  well  pleased. 

He  was  then  led  up  by  the  Spirit  into  the  wilderness, 
where  he  fasted  forty  days  and  forty  nights,  and  was  tempted 


132  PRE  PA  RING   TO   TEACH. 

of  the  devil.  Soon  after,  his  first  disciples  attached  them- 
selves to  him,  John  the  Baptist  pointing  him  out  as  the 
Lamb  of  God  to  two  of  his  own  disciples,  one  of  whom  was 
Andrew  and  the  other  probably  the  apostle  John  ;  they 
both  followed  Jesus.  Andrew  brought  his  brother  Simon 
Peter  to  Jesus,  and  the  next  day  Philip  and  Nathanael  were 
added.  On  the  day  following  he  wrought  his  first  miracle 
at  a  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  changing  water  into  wine. 
As  the  passover  w^as  at  hand,  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  and 
with  a  scourge  of  small  cords  drove  out  of  the  temple  those 
that  sold  oxen  and  sheep  and  doves,  and  the  changers  of 
money.  And  many  believed  in  his  name  when  they  saw 
the  miracles  that  he  did.  Nicodemus,  a  ruler  of  the  Jews, 
came  to  him  by  night,  convinced  that  he  was  a  teacher  sent 
from  God.  As  he  taught  in  Judea,  and  his  disciples  bap- 
tized, such  crowds  resorted  to  him  as  to  awaken  the  jeal- 
ousy of  John's  disciples.  But  John  replied,  I  am  not  the 
Christ,  but  one  sent  before  him  ;  he  must  increase,  but  I 
must  decrease. 

John  the  Baptist  being  seized  by  Herod  and  cast  into 
prison,  Jesus  departed  into  Galilee,  passing  through  Samaria 
on  the  way.  Here  he  conversed  with  the  Samaritan  woman 
as  he  sat  wearied  by  the  well  of  Jacob,  convincing  both  her 
and  many  who  lived  in  Sychar  that  he  was  indeed  the 
Christ,  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  Arriving  at  Cana  of 
Galilee,  he  healed  the  son  of  a  nobleman  who  lay  sick  at 
Capernaum.  In  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth  he  announced 
himself  as  the  Saviour  predicted  by  Isaiah,  but  was  so  vio- 
lently treated  that  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Capernaum.  He 
now  formally  called  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew,  James  imd 
John,  who  were  engaged  in  their  occupation  as  fishermen,  to 
permanent  discipleship,  promising  them  that  they  should  be 
fishers  of  men,  and  by  a  miraculous  draught  of  fishes  as- 
f^uring  them  of  the  abundant  success  which  would  be  di- 
vinely granted  to  them  in  their  new  vocation.   Matthew  was 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  133 

also  called  from  the  receipt  of  custom.  He  now  proceeded 
to  exhibit  himself  as  the  healer  of  all  huraau  disorders 
and  the  conqueror  of  Satan  in  Capernaum  and  throughout 
all  Galilee,  over  which  he  made  a  complete  tour,  teaching 
and  preaching,  curing  the  sick  and  casting  out  devils.  This 
first  year  of  his  ministry  was  one  of  unbounded  popularity, 
great  multitudes  even  from  remote  parts  attending  him 
wherever  he  went,  so  that  on  one  occasion  those  who  sought 
his  healing  could  only  reach  him  by  uncovering  the 
roof  where  he  was  and  letting  down  the  sick  man  in  his 
bed.  At  length,  to  escape  the  crowds,  he  was  forced  to  re- 
main outside  the  city  in  desert  places,  but  even  then  they 
came  to  him  from  every  quarter.  There  were,  however, 
some  who  cherished  thoughts  which  they  did  not  venture 
to  express, "as  though  he  were  guilty  of  blasphemy  in 
claiming  the  power  to  forgive  sins.  Matt.  ix.  3. 

At  the  next  passover  Jesus  was  again  in  Jerusalem,  and 
healed  the  impotent  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  bidding 
him  take  up  his  bed  and  walk,  though  it  was  the  Sabbath. 
This  profanation,  as  it  was  regarded,  of  this  sacred  day,  oc- 
curring in  the  very  centre  of  pharisaic  influence  and  au- 
thoritv,  eave  occasion  for  an  outburst  of  hostility  acjainst  a 
teacher  whose  extraordinary  popularity  excited  their  jeal- 
ousy, and  whose  spiritual  instructions  were  at  variance  with 
their  most  cherished  ideas.  Therefore  did  the  Jews  persecute 
Jesus  and  sought  to  slay  him.  The  opposition  which  had 
taken  such  a  malignant  form  at  the  capital  did  not  fail  tc 
shovv  itself  likewise  in  Galilee,  and  opportunities  were 
soon  afforded  by  his  disciples  plucking  ears  of  corn  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  his  healing  a  man  with  a  withered  hand  in 
one  of  the  synagogues,  by  his  withering  exposures  of  their 
hypocrisy  and  wickedness  (Luke  xi.  39),  by  his  suffering  a 
sinner  to  wash  and  kiss  his  feet  and  anoint  them  (Luke  vii. 
38),  and  even  sitting  at  meat  with  publicans  and  sinners  in 
Matthew's  house  (Matt   ix.  11),  so  that  the  Pharisees  took 

12 


134  PBEPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

counsel  with  the  Herodians  how  they  might  destroy  him. 
Mark  iii.  6.  They  applied  opprobrious  epithets  to  him 
(Matt.  xi.  19)  ;  they  attributed  his  miracles  to  satanic  influ- 
ence (Matt.  xii.  24) ;  they  tempted  him  by  demanding  signs 
from  heaven  (Matt.  xii.  38) ;  they  pressed  him  with  ensnar- 
ing questions.  Luke  xi.  53,  54.  He  was  not,  however,  de- 
terred from  continuing  his  ministry.  He  organized  his  dis- 
ciples by  selecting  the  twelve  apostles,  and  in  the  sermon  on 
the  mount  made  explicit  announcement  of  the  laws  of  his 
kingdom.  He  went  twice  with  his  apostles  through  all  the 
towns  and  villages  of  Galilee  (Luke  viii.  1  ;  Matt.  ix.  35), 
and  then  clothed  the  apostles  with  miraculous  pow- 
ers, and  sent  them  forth  to  preach  that  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  was  at  hand.  Matt.  x.  5 ;  xi.  1.  His  miracles  were 
now  more  striking  than  before.  He  cured  a  man  who  had 
had  an  infirmity  thirty  and  eight  years  (John  v.  5),  and  a 
woman  sick  for  twelve  years,  whom  the  physicians  could  not 
heal  (Mark  v.  25,  26),  and  fierce  demoniacs  whom  no  man 
could  tame  (Mark  v.  2,  ff.),  and  the  blind  and  the  dumb 
(Matt.  ix.  27,  AT.),  and  raised  from  the  dead  the  daughter  of 
Jairus  (Mark  v.  42)  and  the  son  of  the  widow  at  Nain 
(Luke  vii.  15),  and  stilled  the  storm  (Luke  viii.  24),  and 
walked  on  the  sea  (Matt.  xiv.  25),  and  fed  five  thousand 
men  with  five  loaves  and  two  fishes.  Matt.  xiv.  20. 

Our  Lord's  instructions  bear,  to  some  extent,  the  impress 
of  the  opposition  that  he  now  encounters.  In  healing  the 
centurion's  servant  at  Capernaum,  he  contrasts  the  faith  of 
this  Gentile  with  the  want  of  it  in  Israel,  and  intimates  the 
calling  of  the  Gentiles  and  the  rejection  of  the  Jews. 
That  generation  refused  both  John  the  Baptist's  instructions 
and  his  own.  Matt.  xi.  16,  AT.  He  upbraids  Chorazin,  Beth- 
saida  and  Capernaum  because  they  repented  not.  Lie 
warns  his  hearers  that  Nineveh  and  the  queen  of  the  South 
shall  condemn  them  in  the  judgment,  and  that  the  blood 
of  all  the  prophets  shall  be  required  of  that  generation. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  135 

He  tells  his  disciples  of  the  persecutions  they  must  expect, 
but  bids  them  not  to  fear  them  who  can  only  kill  the  body. 
The  parables  of  the  barren  fig  tree  (Luke  xiii.  6),  the  sower 
(Matt.  xiii.  3,  fi*.),  the  tares  (v.  24,  JST.)  and  the  net  (v.  47) 
show  the  different  reception  of  the  gospel  by  different  classes 
of  hearers,  w'hile  those  of  the  mustard  seed  (v.  31)  and 
the  leaven  (v.  33)  declare  the  certainty  of  its  progress  and 
ultimate  triumph.  That  his  popularity  wdth  the  masses  had 
not  abated,  appears  from  the  frequent  references  to  the 
crowds  that  still  gathered  to  hear  him  (Matt.  v.  1 ;  xiii.  2 ; 
xiv.  13 ;  Luke  xii.  1),  and  the  disposition  of  the  people  to 
make  him  a  king  (John  vi.  15),  even  though  the  inhabitants 
of  Nazareth  were  offended  at  his  humble  origin.  Matt.  xiii. 
67.  His  true  followers  believed,  and  were  sure  that  he 
was  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,  though  many  of  his 
disciples  went  back  and  walked  no  more  with  him.  John  vi. 
66,  ff.  The  murderous  disposition  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem 
was  such,  however,  that  he  did  not  go  up  to  the  next  pass- 
over.  John  vi.  4 ;  vii.  1. 

The  next  year,  which  is  the  last  of  our  Lord's  ministry, 
extending  to  the  passover  at  which  he  suffered,  is  divided 
by  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  when  he  again  visited  Jerusa- 
lem. The  six  months  preceding  this  feast  were  spent  in 
Galilee,  which  he  then  leaves,  and  does  not  again  revisit. 
During  this  time  he  gives  further  offence  to  the  Pharisees 
by  exposing  the  variance  between  their  traditions  and  the 
law  of  God  (Matt.  xv.  3),  but  continues  his  teaching  and 
miracles,  healing  great  numbers  (Matt.  xv.  30),  feeding 
the  four  thousand  (v.  38),  and  especially  suggesting  again 
the  extension  of  the  gospel  beyond  the  limits  of  the  chosen 
people  by  curing  the  daughter  of  the  Syrophenician  woman 
in  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Matt.  xv.  21,  ff.),  and  the 
ten  lepers,  of  whom  the  only  one  who  returned  to  give  thanks 
to  God  was  a  Samaritan.  Luke  xvii.  18.  The  disciples, 
through  Peter,  having  again  solemnly  professed  their  faith 


136  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

in  him  as  the  Christ  (Matt.  xvi.  16),  he  began  from  that 
time  forth  to  show  unto  them  how  that  he  must  go  to 
Jerusalem  and  suffer  many  things  of  the  elders  and  chief 
priests  and  scribes,  and  be  killed,  and  be  raised  again  the 
third  day.  Matt.  xvi.  21.  He  had  made  enigmatical  al- 
lusions to  this  before,  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  ministry, 
speaking  to  the  Jews  at  his  first  passover  in  Jerusalem  of 
the  temple  of  his  body,  which  they  would  destroy  and  he 
would  raise  up  in  three  days  (eTohn  ii.  19),  and  to  Nicode- 
mus  of  the  Son  of  man  being  lifted  up  like  the  serpent  in 
the  wilderness  (John  iii.  14),  and  in  the  synagogue  at  Ca- 
pernaum two  years  later  of  his  giving  his  flesh  for  the  life 
of  the  world.  John  vi.  51.  But  he  now  speaks  of  this  sub- 
ject plainly  and  more  than  once  (Matt.  xvii.  22,  23),  and 
tells  his  disciples  that  they  too  must  take  up  their  cross  and 
follow  after  him,  expectant  of  the  reward  which  they  shall 
have  when  the  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  the  glory  of  his 
Father.  Matt.  xvi.  24,  27.  He  further  confirms  them  by 
the  vision  of  his  transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii.  1,  fil'.),  and  of 
Moses  and  Elias  speaking  of  his  decease  which  he  should 
accomplish  at  Jerusalem  (Luke  ix.  31,)  teaching  them 
their  need  of  stronger  faith  by  healing  a  demoniac  whom 
they  could  not  cure  (Matt.  xvii.  19),  and  of  the  humility 
of  a  little  child  (Matt,  xviii.  8),  and  of  tender  (v.  14)  and 
forgiving  love  (v.  22),  and  rebuking  the  zeal  which  would 
forbid  others  casting  out  devils  in  his  name  (Luke  ix.  50), 
or  would  call  down  fire  from  heaven  upon  those  who  re- 
fused to  receive  him.  v.  55.  Then  sending  forth  seventy 
before  his  face  to  heal  and  preach  in  every  place  whither 
he  himself  would  come,  he  left  Galilee  finally,  and  went  up 
to  Jerusalem  to  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  John  vii.  2-10. 

He  remained  at  the  capital  or  in  its  vicinity  for  two 
months,  until  the  feast  of  dedication,  teaching  publicly  in  the 
temple  and  elsewhere,  and  performing  at  least  one  signal 
miracle — that  of  healing  a  man  born  blind.  John  ix. 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  137 

His  foes  sought  on  various  occasions  to  take  him,  but  no 
man  laid  hands  on  liim,  because  his  hour  was  not  yet  come. 
John  vii.  30;  viii.  20;  x.  39.  Officers  were  sent  expressly 
to  apprehend  him,  but  returned  without  him,  saying.  Never 
man  spake  like  this  man.  John  vii.  47.  They  brought 
cases  to  him  as  of  the  woman  taken  in  adultery,  tempting 
him  that  they  might  have  to  accuse  him.  viii.  6.  They 
charged  him  with  being  a  Samaritan,  having  a  devil  (vii. 
20;  viii.  48)  and  being  mad.  x.  20.  They  agreed  that  if 
any  man  did  confess  that  he  was  Christ  he  should  be  put 
out  of  the  synagogue,  ix.  22.  And  they  twice  actually 
took  up  stones  to  cast  at  him.  viii.  59  ;  x.  31. 

There  was,  however,  a  division  among  them  about  him, 
for  some  said.  This  is  the  Christ  (vii.  41);  others.  How  can 
a  man  that  is  a  sinner  do  such  miracles?  ix.  16;  x.  19.  But 
none  of  the  rulers  or  Pharisees  believed  on  him  (vii.  48) ;  the 
only  friendly  voice  among  them  was  that  of  Nicodemus,  who 
claimed  that  he  should  not  be  condemned  unheard,  v.  51. 

After  the  feast  of  dedication  Jesus  retired  before  the  in- 
creasing hostility  of  his  enemies  beyond  the  Jordan  (John 
X.  40),  only  returning  as  far  as  Bethany  to  raise  Lazarus 
from  his  grave,  ch.  xi.  This  new  evidence  of  his  Messiahship 
so  exasperated  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees  that  the  San- 
hedrim was  called  together,  and  a  formal  resolution  taken 
that  he  must  be  put  to  death,  xi.  53.  He  continued  to 
teach  beyond  the  Jordan,  reciting  among  others  the  para- 
bles of  the  great  supper  (Luke  xiv.  16,  ff.),  the  prodigal 
son  (xv.  11,  ff.)  and  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  xvi.  19,  ff. 
When  the  Pharisees  represented  to  him  that  his  life  was  in 
peril  from  Herod,  he  replied  that  he  could  not  perish  out 
of  Jerusalem.  Luke  xiii.  31.  As  he  went  to  the  city  he 
told  his  disciples  once  more  of  what  should  befall  him 
there,  xviii.  31,  ff.  Nevertheless,  the  impression  that  he 
was  now  on  the  point  of  setting  up  his  kingdom  led  James 
and  John  to  ask  for  conspicuous  positions  (Mark  x.  35,  ff.), 

12* 


138  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

and  gave  occasion  to  the  parable  of  the  ten  pounds  (Luke 
xix.  11,  fF.),  and  after  he  had  reached  Bethany,  six  days 
before  the  passover  (John  xii.  1),  incited  the  multitude  to 
come  forth  to  meet  him  and  escort  him  into  the  city  in  jubi- 
lant procession,  xii.  13.     As  he  came  near  the  city  he  wept 
over  it  in  its  impenitence  and  coming  doom  (Luke  xix.  41), 
whicli  were  also  represented  in  the  miracle  wrought  upon 
the  barren  fig  tree  on  the  following  day  and  the  parables 
of  the  wicked  husbandmen  (Luke  xx.  9,  ff.),  the  marriage 
of  the  king's  son  (Matt.  xxii.  1,  ff.),  the  ten  virgins  (Matt. 
XXV.  1,  ff.)  and  the  five  talents  (v.  14,  ff.),  his  casting  out 
them  that  sold  and  bought  in  the  temple  (Luke  xix.  45), 
and  his  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  of 
Jerusalem.     Two  days  before  the  passover  he  was  at  a  sup- 
per at  Bethany,  where  Mary  anointed  him  with  costly  oint- 
ment, which  he  said  was  for  his  burial.   Matt.  xxvi.  8,  ff. 
Judas  Iscariot  bargained  with  the  chief  priests  to  betray 
him  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver.     Then  followed  the  pass- 
over,  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  last  address 
of  Jesus  to  his  disciples  (John  xiv.  and  xvi.)  and  his  prayer 
(xvii.),  his  agony  in   Gethsemane  and  his  seizure  in  the 
night  by  the  band  of  soldiers  led  by  the  traitor  Judas.     He 
was  taken  to  the  high  priest's  house,  where  Peter  thrice  de- 
nied him.     Early  in  the  morning  the  Sanhedrim  was  sum- 
moned, who  pronounced  him  guilty  of  death.     He  was  then 
carried  to  the  judgment-hall  of  Pilate,  who  finally  gave  sen- 
tence that  he  should  be  crucified.     His  body  was  laid  in  a 
new  tomb  belonging  to  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  a  watch  set 
to  guard  the  sepulchre.     On  the  morning  of  the  third  day 
he  rose  from  the  dead;  and  when  Mary  Magdalene  and  the 
other  Mary  visited  the  sepulchre,  they  found  not  the  body 
of  Jesus,  but  saw  two  angels,  who  told  them  that  he  was 
alive ;  and  as  they  went  to  tell  the  disciples,  Jesus  himself 
met  them.     He  further  appeared  to  Mary  Magdalene  at 
the  sepulchre  (John  xx.  14),  to  Peter  (1  Cor.  xv.  5),  to  two 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  139 

disciples  on  their  way  to  Emmaus  (Luke  xxiv.  15,  ff.),  to 
the  apostles  when  Thomas  was  absent  and  again  when  he 
was  present  (John  xx  19,  ff.),  to  seven  apostles  at  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias  (John  xxi  1,  ff.),  and  to  above  five  hundred 
brethren  at  once.  1  Coi  xv.  6.  Finally,  after  being  seen  of 
his  disciples  forty  days  (  A.cts  i.  3),  he  ascended  in  their  sight 
to  heaven. 


LESSOJf  V. 
THE  LABORS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

Our  Lord,  having  satisfied  the  apostles  of  the  reality  of 
his  resurrection  by  many  infallible  proofs,  commanded  them 
not  to  depart  from  Jerusalem  till  the  Holy  Spirit,  promised 
by  the  Father,  should  come  upon  them.  They  would  thus 
be  fitted  and  empowered  to  be  witnesses  unto  him  in  Jerusa- 
lem and  in  all  Judea  and  in  Samaria  and  unto  the  uttermost 
part  of  the  earth.  Having  given  them  this  charge,  he  was 
taken  up,  and  a  cloud  received  him  out  of  their  sight.  The 
eleven,  accordingly,  returned  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the 
scene  of  the  ascension,  and  with  the  rest  of  the  disciples, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  a  hundred  and  twenty,  continued 
with  one  accord  in  prayer  and  supplication,  awaiting  the 
fulfillment  of  the  promise.  Meanwhile,  they  filled  up  the 
number  of  the  apostles,  which  had  been  reduced  by  the 
apostasy  and  suicide  of  Judas  Iscariot.  Two  were  named, 
who  had  been  with  the  Lord  Jesus  from  the  very  beginning 
of  his  ministry  until  the  day  of  his  ascension  to  heaven,! 
and  who  tlierefore  were  competent  witnesses  to  his  resurrec- 
tion ;  of  these  ^Matthias  was  chosen  by  lot,  which  was  cast 
under  divine  direction. 

The  time  for  the  organization  of  the  Church  of  the  new 
disj)eusation  had  now  arrived.    It  was  the  day  of  Pentecost, 


140  FEEFAEI^G   TO   TEACH. 

the  annual  commemoration  of  the  organization  of  Israel  as 
the  people  of  God  under  the  former  dispensation,  when  God 
came  down  with  solemn  pomp  on  Sinai  and  proclaimed  his 
law.  The  Spirit  of  God  now  came  down  from  heaven  with 
the  sound  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind,  which  filled  the  house 
where  the  disciples  were  assembled.  And  there  appeared 
unto  them  cloven  tongues  as  of  fire,  and  it  sat  upon  each  of 
tliera.  And  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
began  to  speak  with  other  tongues  as  the  Spirit  gave  them 
utterance.  Representatives  of  various  lands  then  present 
in  Jerusalem  in  attendance  upon  the  feast  flocked  in,  and 
were  amazed  that,  though  the  speakers  were  Galileans,  every 
man  heard  them  speak  in  his  own  language.  Thus  the  gos- 
pel of  the  crucified  and  risen  Saviour  was  at  the  very  outset 
proclaimed  to  those  who  had  been  gathered  from  distant  parts 
of  the  world,  symbolic  of  its  being  ultimately  preached  in 
all  the  world  and  to  every  creature.  And  the  same  day 
there  were  added  unto  them  about  three  thousand  souls. 
And  all  that  believed  were  together  and  had  all  things  com- 
mon, and  sold  their  possessions  and  goods  and  parted  them 
to  all  men  as  every  man  had  need ;  and  the  Lord  added  to 
the  Church  daily  such  as  should  be  saved. 

The  infant  Church,  thus  divinely  established,  was  now 
subjected  to  successive  trials  from  without  and  from  within, 
(vhich,  however,  instead  of  destroying,  or  even  weakening  it, 
vvere  overruled  for  its  enlargement  and  purification  and  more 
complete  equipment.  Peter  and  John  healed  a  lame  man 
at  the  temple  and  again  preached  Jesus  and  the  resurrection 
to  the  wondering  crowds,  five  thousand  of  whom  believed. 
For  thus  speaking  to  the  people  they  were  arrested  and 
brought  before  the  Sanhedrim,  where,  unabashed,  they 
repeated  their  testimony,  that  "  by  the  name  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  whom  ye  crucified,  whom  God  raised  from  the 
dead,  doth  this  man  stand  here  before  you  whole."  To  the 
command  of  the  council  that  they  should  not  speak  at  all, 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  141 

nor  teach  iu  the  name  of  Jesus,  they  firmly  and  decidedly 
refused  compliance.  So,  when  they  had  further  threatened 
them,  they  let  them  go,  finding  nothing  how  they  might 
punish  them,  because  of  the  people ;  for  all  men  glorified 
God  for  that  which  was  done.  But  in  this  popularity  and 
rapid  increase  and  enthusiasm  of  the  early  converts  there  lay 
a  fresh  danger  to  the  Church,  arising  within  its  own  bosom ; 
unworthy  adherents  might  be  attracted  to  it  and  gain  ad- 
mission, whose  hypocrisy  might  cast  suspicion  on  the  body 
and  endanger  its  purity.  Ananias  and  Sapphira  sought  a 
reputation  for  piety  by  a  false  pretence,  but  their  sudden  and 
startling  fate  created  a  widespread  and  salutary  awe  which 
deterred  others  from  following  their  pernicious  example. 

Miracles  of  healing  continued  to  be  wrought  in  great 
numbers.  The  sick  were  placed  on  beds  and  couches  in 
the  streets  that  at  the  least  the  shadow  of  Peter  passing  by 
might  overshadow  some  of  them,  and  the  diseased  were 
broucrht  from  surroundino-  cities  into  Jerusalem  to  be 
cured,  and  believers  were  added  to  the  Lord,  multitudes 
both  of  men  and  w^omeu.  Alarmed  at  the  rapidity  with 
w^hich  the  new  faith  was  spreading,  the  high  priest  and  his 
associates  undertook  to  stop  it  by  still  more  summary  mea- 
sures than  before.  They  seized  the  whole  body  of  the 
apostles  and  put  them  in  the  common  prison.  When  the 
Sanhedrim  assembled  in  the  morning  to  deliberate  upon 
the  case,  to  their  dismay  the  prisoners  had  disappeared. 
They  had  been  miraculously  released,  and  had  returned  to 
the  temple  to  teach  the  people.  Learning  this,  they  had 
them  brought  before  them ;  and  exasperated  by  their  in- 
trepid boldness,  they  took  counsel  to  slay  them.  Dissuaded 
from  this  extreme  measure  by  the  judicious  advice  of 
Gamaliel,  they  beat  the  apostles  and  commanded  them  not 
to  speak  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  let  them  go.  And  they 
departed  rejoicing  that  they  were  counted  worthy  to  suflfer 
shame  for  his  name ;  an  ^  daily  in  the  temple  and  in  every 


142  PREPABING   TO   TEACH. 

house  they  ceased  not  to  teach  and  to  preach  Jesus  Christ. 
A  fresh  trouble  arose  within  the  Church  consequent  upon  its 
rapid  enlargement.  It  is  not  now  corruption,  threatening 
to  mar  the  purity  of  the  Church,  but  strife  between  parties, 
imiDairing  its  unity.  The  Grecian  Jews  murmured  against 
the  Hebrews  because  their  widows  were  neglected  in  the 
daily  ministration.  The  dissension  was  allayed,  and  the 
inadequate  distribution  of  the  benefactions  of  the  Church 
to  tlie  needy  poor  was  corrected  by  creating  the  office  of 
deacon  with  reference  to  this  special  work.  Seven  deacons 
were  appointed.  Among  them  was  Stephen,  whose  great 
fidelity  and  ability  proved  the  occasion  of  a  renewed  out- 
break of  hostility  more  virulent  than  before.  Stephen  him- 
self was  its  first  victim.  He  was  carried  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim, and  false  witnesses  brought  forward  who  charged  him 
with  blasphemous  words  against  the  temple  and  the  law. 
He  stated  and  defended  his  real  position  by  reciting  briefly 
the  history  of  the  chosen  people  and  showing  that  the  un- 
faithfulness of  which  they  had  been  guilty  in  every  age  had 
now  culminated  in  the  murder  of  Him  who  was  predicted 
by  the  prophets,  and  that  the  temple  could  not  be  God's  true 
and  permanent  abode.  These  unwelcome  truths  filled  them 
with  rage,  and  they  stoned  him  to  death.  It  is  in  connec- 
tion wdth  this  first  Christian  martyrdom  that  the  earliest 
mention  is  made  of  one  who  is  afterward  to  appear  in  a 
very  different  character  and  play  a  very  prominent  part  in 
the  apostolic  Church.  The  witnesses  laid  down  their  clothes 
at  a  young  man's  feet  whose  name  was  Saul,  and  Saul  was 
consenting  unto  his  death. 

This  martyrdom  was  the  signal  for  the  first  act  in  a  great 
and  bloody  persecution,  which,  however,  instead  of  crush- 
ing the  Church,  served  but  to  open  the  way  for  a  new  stage 
in  its  development  and  growth.  Hitherto  it  had  been  con- 
fined to  Jerusalem,  which  was  its  appointed  place  of  begin- 
ning.    The  time   had  now  come  for  its  diffusion,  and  the 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  143 

violence  of  this  Dersecution  ^vas  the  providential  means  of 
bringing  this  about.  The  disciples  were  scattered  abroad, 
and  went  everywhere  preaching  the  word.  Pliilip,  one  of 
the  seven  deacons,  went  northward  to  Samaria,  which  may 
be  said  to  have  occupied  a  position  intermediate  between 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  preached  the  gospel  wdth  such  suc- 
cess that  he  was  followed  by  the  apostles  Peter  and  John, 
who  labored  both  there  and  in  other  cities  of  the  Samari- 
tans. Philip  was  then  directed  to  the  opposite  quarter, 
southward  from  Jerusalem,  where  he  met  an  Ethiopian 
eunuch  of  great  authority  under  Queen  Candace,  and 
preached  to  him  Jesus;  he  believed,  was  baptized,  and  went 
on  his  way  rejoicing.  But  it  was  not  only  by  dispersed  dis- 
ciples that  the  gospel  was  thus  carried  into  various  parts. 
An  instrument  of  God's  grace  was  preparing  in  one  of  the 
persecutors  themselves.  Saul,  who  started  to  Damascus 
breathing  out  threatenings  and  slaughter  against  the  disci- 
ples of  the  Lord,  was  converted  on  the  way,  and  began 
himself  to  preach  Jesus,  first  at  Damascus,  then  at  Jerusa- 
lem, whence  also  he  found  it  prudent  to  retire  to  his  native 
city  of  Tarsus.  But  the  Church  did  not  itself  understand 
that  the  restrictions  of  the  old  dispensation  were  no  longer 
operative,  and  that  the  barriers  of  the  cc^^monial  law, 
which  had  proved  so  serviceable  in  guarding  God's  ancient 
people  from  contamination,  were  not  now  to  be  permitted 
to  obstruct  the  free  diffusion  of  the  gospel.  Peter  had 
preached  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  that  the  promise  was  to 
all  that  are  afar  off  (Acts  ii.  39),  and  that  all  the  kindreds 
of  the  earth  were  to  be  blessed  in  the  seed  of  Abraham,  iii. 
25.  But  that  this  involved  the  abolition  of  Mosaic  institu- 
tions he  had  not  suspected.  The  first  lesson  on  this  subject 
was  now  given  to  the  apostle  of  the  circumcision.  Gal.  ii.  8. 
Peter  had  been  providentially  led  to  Lydda  and  then  to 
Joppa,  to  which  latter  place  Cornelius,  a  devout  Roman 
centurion  of  Csesarea,  had  been  directed  to  send  lo  him  for 


144  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

further  instruction.  A  special  vision,  teaching  him  not  to 
call  that  unclean  which  God  had  cleansed,  prepared  him 
for  the  coming  of  the  messengers,  with  whom  the  Spirit  bid 
him  go.  As  he  was  preaching  to  Cornelius  and  his  assem- 
bled friends  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  them  with  his  miracu- 
lous influences,  and  he  could  not  refuse  to  baptize  them. 
On  his  return  to  Jerusalem  he  was  charged  with  having 
broken  the  law  by  eating  with  men  uncircumcised ;  but  on 
his  rehearsing  the  whole  matter,  the  confession  was  made, 
"Then  hath  God  also  to  the  Gentiles  granted  repentance 
unto  life."  A  further  step  w^as  taken  in  the  same  direction 
when  those  scattered  by  the  persecution  came  to  Antioch 
and  preached  to  Greeks  with  remarkable  success.  This 
was  followed  up  by  Barnabas  and  Saul,  who  labored  there 
for  a  whole  year ;  and  the  disciples  were  first  called  Chris- 
tians in  Antioch.  It  was  thus  recognized  for  the  first  time 
that  they  were  not  a  mere  section  of  the  Jews,  but  formed  a 
distinct  body.  The  new  name  implied  the  admission  that 
the  Church  had  attained  to  a  separate  and  independent  ex- 
istence. Antioch  was  preparing  to  be  a  new  centre  of  Chris- 
tian radiation,  but  meanwhile  recognized  its  dependence  on 
the  mother-church  at  Jerusalem  by  sending  supplies  to  the 
needy  brethren  in  Judea  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul.  A  fresh  persecution  under  Herod  Agrippa  showed 
how  impossible  it  was  thus  to  check  the  gospel.  James,  the 
brother  of  John,  was  killed.  But  Peter,  though  impris- 
oned, was  miraculously  released  ;  the  persecutor  died  a  mis- 
erable death,  and  the  word  of  God  grew  and  multiplied. 

The  time  had  now  come  for  an  entirely  new  movement  in 
the  work  of  spreading  the  gospel.  Hitherto  apostolic  and 
Christian  labor  had  been  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the 
territory  of  Palestine.  Now,  by  the  express  direction  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  Barnabas  and  Saul,  or  Paul,  were  set  apart,  and 
sent  forth  by  the  church  at  Antioch  upon  a  mission  in  for- 
eign lands.     They  passed   through  Seleucia,  Salamis  and 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  145 

Paplios  in  Cyprus,  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
Iconiura,  Lystra  and  Derbe,  and  then  returned  by  the  same 
route  to  Perga,  and  thence  to  Attalia  and  Antioch,  planting 
and  organizing  churches  everywhere.  The  chief  opposition 
that  they  encountered  was  from  the  Jews,  and  their  princi- 
pal converts  were  from  the  Gentiles.  But  were  these  Gen- 
tile converts  to  be  required  to  observe  the  law  of  Moses  ? 
This  was  affirmed  by  some  who  came  down  from  Judea,  and 
denied  by  Paul  and  Barnabas.  The  question  was  referred 
to  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  for  decision,  and 
they  enjoined  no  ceremonial  observances  whatever,  but  sim- 
ply required  them,  from  prudential  considerations,  to  abstain 
from  meats  offered  to  idols,  and  from  things  strangled,  and 
from  blood,  as  well  as  to  keep  aloof  from  that  licentiousness 
which  prevailed  to  such  a  shocking  extent  among  the 
heathen.  Paul  and  Barnabas  now  separated,  each  going  in 
a  different  direction.  Barnabas,  with  Mark,  sailed  unto  his 
native  island  of  Cyprus.  Paul,  with  Silas  and  Timothy, 
took  a  much  more  extensive  tour  than  before.  After  passing 
through  Galatia  and  other  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  he  was  led 
by  express  divine  direction  into  Europe.  Entering  Mace- 
donia, he  visited  Philippi  and  Thessalonica,  founding  the 
churches  to  which  he  subsequently  addressed  three  of  his 
Epistles.  Driven  onward  by  Jewish  opposition,  he  went  to 
Berea,  Athens  and  Corinth,  where  he  remained  a  year  and 
six  months,  and  the  results  of  his  labors  are  apparent  in  his 
two  Epistles  to  the  church  in  that  city.  Having  thus  gained 
a  permanent  lodgment  for  the  gospel  in  Greece,  he  hastened 
back  to  Jerusalem  and  Antioch  by  way  of  Ephesus, 
promising  shortly  to  return  to  this  important  city.  Accord- 
ingly, after  a  brief  delay,  he  directed  his  third  missionary 
journey  mainly  to  Ephesus,  where  he  remained  for  three 
years,  preaching  in  the  synagogues,  disputing  in  the  schools, 
teaching  from  house  to  house,  and  working  miracles  with 
such  effect  that  all  *bev  whjch  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word 

^  -  - 


146  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

of  the  Lord  Jesus,  both  Jews  and  Greeks.  Great  numbers 
believed,  and  many  abandoned  the  practice  of  magic  arts, 
and  the  makers  of  silver  shrines  for  Diana  began  to  fear 
that  they  should  lose  their  occupation,  so  mightily  grew 
the  word  of  God,  and  prevailed.  Having  occupied  this  pop- 
ulous and  influential  metropolis  of  Western  Asia,  Paul  next 
turned  his  thoughts  to  Rome,  the  capital  and  heart  of  the 
civilized  world  (Acts  xix.  21),  where,  however,  he  was  to  be 
taken  in  a  very  different  way  from  that  he  then  imagined. 
A  short  time  was  spent  in  revisiting  the  churches  in  Greece 
and  Macedonia,  after  which  he  returned  to  Miletus,  where 
he  took  a  last  affecting  farewell  of  the  elders  of  the  Ephesian 
church,  and  then  persistently,  in  the  face  of  entreaties  and 
prophetic  warning,  went  bound  in  the  spirit  unto  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Thus  far  the  gospel  had  been  spread  by  the  active  eff()rts 
of  the  apostles  and  disciples,  either  impelled  bj  their  own 
voluntary  purpose  or  driven  by  the  persecution  of  foes. 
The  preacher  of  the  gospel  is  now  to  be  carried  to  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  authorities  of  the  empire 
itself  Paul  had  scarcely  been  a  week  in  Jerusalem  when 
he  was  seized  in  the  temple  by  a  Jewish  mob,  who  would 
have  put  him  to  death  if  he  had  not  been  rescued  by  the 
chief  captain  of  the  Roman  garrison,  by  whose  permission 
he  made  his  defence  to  the  populace  from  the  stairs  of  the 
castle.  On  the  following  day  he  made  another  defence  be- 
fore the  assembled  Jewish  council.  As  a  plot  had  been 
formed  against  his  life,  he  was  sent  under  guard  to  Csesarea, 
the  residence  of  the  governor  Felix,  before  whom  he  de- 
fended himself  again,  and  then  once  more  before  his  suc- 
cessor, Festus.  As  the  latter  proposed  to  send  him  back  to 
Jerusalem,  he  was  obliged  to  appeal  unto  Caesar.  Accord- 
ingly, after  a  fifth  defence,  in  the  presence  of  KingAgrippa, 
he  was  embarked  as  a  prisoner  for  Rome.  The  vessel  in 
which  he  sailed  was  wrecked  upon  the  island  of  Malta ;  but 


BIBLE  HISTORY.  147 

all  escaping  with  their  lives,  he  was  forwarded  to  the  impe- 
rial city.  Here,  being  suffered  to  dwell  by  himself  with  a 
eoldier  that  kept  him,  he  first,  as  had  been  his  invariable 
custom,  endeavored  to  win  the  Jews  to  the  acceptance  of 
the  gospel.  So,  calling  their  chief  men  together  in  three 
days  after  his  arrival,  a  day  was  named  for  a  conference,  at 
which  he  expounded  and  testified  the  kingdom  of  God,  per- 
suading them  concerning  Jesus,  both  out  of  the  law  of  Mo- 
ses and  out  of  the  prophets,  from  morning  till  evening. 
And  some  believed  the  things  which  were  spoken,  and  some 
believed  not.  And  when  they  agreed  not  among  themselves 
they  departed,  after  Paul  had  faithfully  set  before  them  the 
consequences  of  this  obstinate  blindness :  Be  it  known, 
therefore,  unto  you  that  the  salvation  of  God  is  sent  unto 
the  Gentiles,  and  that  they  will  hear  it.  And  Paul  dwelt 
two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired  house,  and  received  all 
that  came  in  unto  him,  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God  and 
teaching  those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
with  all  confidence,  no  man  forbidding  him. 

The  Church,  thus  gradually  freed  from  the  trammels  of 
Judaism,  and  planted  in  the  chief  seats  of  population  and 
influence,  and  attended  by  the  mighty  power  of  God,  was 
fairly  equipped  for  its  great  struggle  for  the  mastery  of  the 
world. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


LESSOJV  I. 
PALESTINE. 


The  land  which  was  the  residence  of  the  chosen  people, 
where  our  blessed  Saviour  dwelt  and  where  the  principal 
events  recorded  in  the  Bible  took  place,  is  known  by  various 
names.  On  account  of  its  sacred  associations  it  is  called 
the  Holy  Land  (Zech.  ii.  12),  the  pleasant  land  (Dan.  viii.  9), 
the  glorious  land  (Dan.  xi.  16),  the  Lord's  land  (Hos.  ix.  3), 
the  land  which  the  Lord  sware  to  Abraham,  to  Isaac  and 
to  Jacob  (Gen.  1.  24),  and  the  land  of  promise.  Heb.  xi.  9. 
From  its  inhabitants  at  different  periods  it  is  called  the 
land  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xi.  31),  the  land  of  the  Hebrews 
(Gen.  xl.  15),  the  land  of  Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19),  and  Pal- 
estine, which  is  now  familiarly  applied  to  the  whole  coun- 
try ;  though  when  used  in  the  Old  Testament  (Ex.  xv.  14 ; 
Esa.  xiv.  29 ;  Joel  iii.  4),  it  has  its  original  and  narrower 
sense  of  Philistia  (Ps.  Ix.  8),  or  the  territory  of  the  Philis- 
tines along  the  south-western  coast. 

This  land  was  admirably  adapted  by  its  location  for  the 
purpose  for  which  God  in  his  providence  designed  it.  It 
was  shut  in  by  great  natural  barriers,  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west,  the  mountain  range  of  Lebanon  on  the  north  and 
the  desert  on  the  south  and  east,  and  the  people  were  thus 
secluded  from  the  heathen  states  around  them.  Its  prox- 
imity to  the  seats  of  early  civilization  and  to  the  great  em- 
pires of  the  old  world  both  gave  them  the  advantage  of  the 
highest  existing   ferns   of  worldly  culture  and  provided 

13*  149 


150  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

instruments  for  their  chastisement  when  they  transgressed. 
And  its  central  position  in  relation  to  the  three  great  conti- 
nents of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  lying  as  it  did  upon  or 
adjacent  to  the  main  routes  of  trade  and  travel  from  west 
to  east,  eminently  fitted  it  to  be  the  centre  of  diffusion  for 
the  true  religion  when  the  time  had  come  for  the  gospel  to 
be  preached  to  every  creature. 

As  defined  in  the  promise  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  18)  and 
to  Moses  (Ex.  xxiii.  31),  the  land  extended  to  the  Euphrates 
on  the  east  and  to  the  Eed  Sea  on  the  south.  These  limits 
were  reached  in  the  prosperous  reigns  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon (1  Kings  iv.  21 ;  ix.  26),  but  were  only  maintained  for 
a  brief  period.  The  territory  actually  assigned  by  Moses 
to  the  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  is  minutely  described 
Num.  xxxii.  33-42,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  territory 
west  of  the  Jordan  are  given  in  Num.  xxxiv.  2-12.  This 
cannot  now  be  traced  with  perfect  accuracy,  since  several 
of  the  places  named  in  the  description  can  no  longer  be 
identified.  It  may  be  stated  in  the  general  that  it  lay  be- 
tween 33?°  and  35|°  east  longitude,  as  reckoned  from  Green- 
wich, and  between  30J°  and  33^°  north  latitude,  being  thus 
about  midway  between  the  equator  and  the  arctic  circle. 
Kitto  estimates  its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  at 
about  180  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  from  west  to  east 
at  about  100  miles,  its  average  breadth  being  perhaps  65 
miles  and  its  area  about  11,000  square  miles.  This  would 
make  it  about  the  size  of  the  State  of  Maryland,  or  equal 
to  one-fourth  of  Pennsylvania,  or  one-fifth  of  England  and 
Wales,  or  two-thirds  of  Switzerland.  But  as  in  the  case 
of  Greece,  its  influence  upon  the  world  has  been  immense, 
notwithstanding  its  small  extent. 

In  studying  the  geography  of  Palestine,  we  shall  first 
consider  its  physical  features  and  then  proceed  to  its  civil 
divisions  and  its  cities.  As  the  most  important  of  the  phys- 
ical features  of  a  country  are  its  elevations,  we  shall  in  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  hWLE.  15: 

first  instance  examine  the  mountains  and  highlands.  These 
condition  the  existence  and  determine  the  amount  of  its 
depressions,  viz.,  the  valleys  and  plains,  which  will  next 
claim  attention.  And  these  again  fix  its  water  system 
in  location,  extent  and  the  direction  of  its  flow,  which 
brings  before  us  its  seas  and  lakes,  rivers,  streams  and 
fountains. 

Mountains. 

In  general,  Palestine  may  be  described  as  a  mountain 
land,  or,  as  it  is  called  by  Moses  (Deut.  xi.  11),  "a  land  of 
hills  and  valleys."  It  is  an  elevated,  undulating  region, 
stretching  from  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  on  the  north  to 
the  Arabian  desert  and  the  mountains  of  Sin,  an  extension 
of  the  Sinaitic  range,  on  the  south.  This  lofty  plateau  is 
divided  through  all  its  extent  from  north  to  south  by  the 
deep  and  precipitous  valley  of  the  Jordan,  called  by  the 
modern  inhabitants  El  Ghor,  and  which,  under  the  name 
El  Arabah,  is  continued  all  the  way  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Par- 
allel to  this  is  a  broader  depression  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast,  which  also  reaches,  with  but  a  single  interrup- 
tion, from  the  northern  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  country. 
There  are  thus  two  elevated  plateaus  extending  north  and 
south,  one  on  the  east  and  the  other  on  the  w'est  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  two  resulting  depressions,  viz.,  the  valley  of  the 
river  Jordan  and  the  plain  upon  the  sea-coast. 

Reviewing  the  mountains  more  in  detail,  Lebanon  de- 
mands the  first  place,  as  most  remarkable  in  itself  and  most 
frequently  referred  to  in  Scripture.  Moses  calls  it  (Deut. 
iii.  26)  "  that  goodly  mountain."  The  name  Lebanon  means 
strictly  the  "white"  mountain,  and  is  given  to  it  either  on 
account  of  the  chalky  whiteness  of  the  limestone  rock  of 
which  it  is  chiefly  composed,  or  because  of  the  snow  which 
rests  upon  some  of  its  summits  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.     The  southern  extremity  of  Lebanon  constitutes 


152  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

the  northern  boundary  of  Palestine.  It  consists  of  two 
parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  commonly  called  Libanus 
and  anti-Libanus,  though  this  distinction  is  never  made  in 
the  Bible,  both  being  there  included  under  the  common 
name  of  Lebanon.  They  run  through  about  one  degree  of 
latitude,  from  south-west  to  north-east,  parallel  to  the  sea- 
coast  and  enclosing  the  rich  and  fertile  valley  of  Coele- 
Syria,  or,  as  it  called  (Josh.  xi.  17 ;  xii.  7),  "  the  valley  of 
Lebanon."  The  mountains  attain  an  elevation  of  about 
9000  feet;  their  sides  are  terraced  and  extremely  product- 
ive. The  sacred  writers  celebrate  its  perennial  streams 
(Sol.  Song  iv.  15) ;  the  perfume  of  its  plants  (Sol.  Song  iv. 
11 ;  Hos.  xiv.  6) ;  its  wine  (Hos.  xiv.  7) ;  and  especially  its 
cedars,  which  the  Tyrians  used  for  masts  of  vessels  and 
boxes  of  merchandise  (Ezek.  xx^.  5,  24),  David  for  his 
palace  on  Mount  Zion  (2  Sam.  v.  11),  Solomon  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temple,  floating  them  by  sea  to  Joppa  (2  Chron. 
ii.  8,  16),  and  the  Jews  after  the  captivity  in  building  the 
second  temple.  Ezra  iii.  7. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  anti-Libanus  range  was 
known  as  Mount  Hermon,  which,  according  to  Deut.  iii.  9, 
the  Sidonians  called  "Sirion"  and  the  Amorites  "Shenir," 
■ind  also  bore  the  name  of  "Sion"  (Deut.  iv.  45),  a  different 
word  in  Hebrew  from  "Zion,"  the  mountain  in  Jerusalem, 
though  this  is  also  spelled  "Sion"  in  the  New  Testament. 
Hermon  is  the  highest  point  in  the  range,  rising  to  an  alti- 
tude of  perhaps  10,000  feet,  and  covered  with  perpetual 
snow.  The  hoary  whiteness  of  its  summit  has  given  rise  to 
its  modern  name  of  Jebel-es-Sheikh,  old  man  mountain,  or 
Jebel-el-telj,  snow  mountain. 

Passing  southward  upon  the  west  of  the  Jordan,  we  first 
meet  Mount  Naphtali,  mentioned  once  (Josh.  xx.  7)  as  the 
site  of  Kedesh,  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge.  It  is  a  spur 
running  south-west  from  Hermon,  and  is  named  from  the 
tribe  within  whose  territory  it  lay.     This  falls  off  into  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  153 

high  table-land    of  Zebulun,  or   of  Galilee,   wnich   slopes 
gradually  into  the  plain  on  the  seacoast,  but  with  a  steeper 
descent  into  the  valley  of  Jezreel  on  the  south,  and  more 
abruptly  still  toward  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan.     From  this  elevated  base  arises  the  so- 
called  Mount  of  Beatitudes,  nearly  due  west  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  lake,  and  Mount  Tabor  farther  south,  almost  on 
a  line  with  the  extremity  of  the  same  lake.     The  former, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  doubtful  tradition  that  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  delivered  on  its  summit,  is  a  low 
ridge  thirty  or  forty  feet  high  and  scarcely  half  a  mile  long. 
Mount  Tabor  is  in  appearance  a  truncated  cone,  rising  to  a 
considerable  elevation  and  having  a  level  plot  of  more  than 
a  mile  in  circumference  upon  its  summit,  which  commands 
a  view  of  rare  extent  and  beauty.     It  is  spoken  of  (Josh. 
xix.  22)  as  one  point  in  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char ;  at  this  mountain  Barak  assembled  his  army  before 
his  victory  over  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.  6),  here  Gideon's  brethren 
were  slain  by  the  Midianites  (Judg.  viii.  18),  and  tradition  ' 
has  fixed  upon  it  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  transfiguration. 
South  of  the  table-land  of  Nazareth  runs  the  broad  and 
fertile  valley  of  Jezreel,  separating  it  from  the  high  land 
beyond,  which  extends  southward  to  the  limits  of  Palestine. 
This,  though  forming  an  uninterrupted  hill  country,  is  dis- 
tinguished (Josh.  XX.  7)  into  the  mountain  of  Ephiaim  and 
the  mountain  of  Judah,  the  former  embracing  the  northern 
and  the  latter  the  southern  portion  of  it,  the  names  being 
derived  from  the  tribes  in  whose  territories  it  lay.     At  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  this  mountain  land  of  Ephraini 
we  find  Mount  Gilboa,  overlooking  the  valley  of  Jezreel 
and  the  plain  of  the  Jordan ;  here  Saul  and  his  sons  were 
slain  in  battle  with  the  Philistines.   1  Sam.  xxxi.     North 
of  this  mountain,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  branch  of  the 
valley  of  Jezreel,  lies  a  high  ridge  to  which  tradition  has  im- 
properly given  the  name  of  Hermon,  and  which  is  in  con- 


154  PREPARING    10    TEACH. 

sequence  often  called  Little  Hermon,  in  distinction   from 
the  true  Hermon  already  spoken  of. 

At  its  north-western  extremity  the  mountain  of  Ephraim 
sends  out  a  long  spur  reaching  to  the  sea,  the  extremity  of 
which  is  known  as  the  promontory  of  Mount  Carmel.  This 
name,  which  signifies  "  a  garden,"  was  bestowed  upon  it  on 
account  of  its  fertility.  Hence,  Isaiah,  describing  the  glo- 
rious changes  of  the  future  under  the  emblem  of  the  desert 
being  made  to  bloom,  says  (xxxv.  2),  "  The  glory  of  Leba- 
non and  the  excellency  of  Carmel  shall  be  given  unto  it." 
This  marked  the  southern  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(Josh,  xix.  26)  ;  here  Elijah  encountered  the  prophets  of 
Baal  and  his  sacrifice  was  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven 
(1  Kings  xviii.  19,  if.)  ;  from  its  summit  his  servant  saw  the 
little  cloud  arising  out  of  the  sea  (ver.  44)  ;  and  here  we 
subsequently  find  Elisha.  2  Kings  iv.  25.  Its  modern 
name  is  Jebel  mar  Elias,  or  the  mountain  of  St.  Elijah. 
The  order  of  Carmelite  monks  takes  its  name  from  this 
mountain,  on  which  convents  have  been  erected  at  diflTerent 
periods.  The  snowy  peak  of  Hermon  is  visible  from  its 
summit,  though  perhaps  fifty  miles  distant.  The  immense 
number  of  caves  and  grottoes,  natural  or  artificial,  which 
here  exist  and  afibrd  remarkable  facilities  for  concealment, 
is  perhaps  alluded  to  in  Amos  ix.  3:  "Though  they  hide 
themselves  in  the  top  of  Carmel." 

To  the  mountains  of  Ephraim  further  belong  Ebal  and 
Gerizim,  which  rise  in  steep,  rocky  precipices  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  narrow  valley  of  Shechem.  The  children  of 
Israel  were  directed  (Deut.  xxvii.),  on  their  entrance  into 
Canaan,  to  erect  an  altar  on  Ebal,  and  six  tribes  were  to 
stand  on  Ebal  to  pronounce  the  curses  of  the  law,  and  six 
on  Gerizim  to  pronounce  blessings.  The  Samaritans  built 
a  temple  on  Gerizim  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  substituted  "Gerizim"  for  "Ebal"  in  their  copies  of 
the  law  in  the  passage  above  referred  to.     To  this  temple 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  155 

the  woman  of  Samaria  alluded  when  she  said  (John  iv.  20), 
"Our  fathers  worshiped  in  this  mountain,"  and  to  this 
day  the  Samaritans  turn  their  faces  toward  Mount  Gerizira 
when  they  pray.  It  was  from  the  top  of  Gerizim  that  Jo- 
tham  propounded  his  parable  to  the  men  of  Shechem. 
Judg.  ix.  7. 

To  the  mountain  land  of  Ephraim  also  belong  the  hill  of 
Samaria  (1  Kings  xvi.  24),  on  which  the  city  of  that  name 
was  built;  Mount  Zalmon,  which  must  have  been  some- 
where in  the  vicinity  of  Shechem ;  the  hill  Gaash,  where 
Joshua  was  buried  (Josh.  xx.  30)  ;  and  Mount  Zemaraira, 
the  scene  of  a  victory  by  King  Abijah  over  Jeroboan. 
(2  Chron.  xiii.  3),  whose  localities  cannot  now  be  identified. 

The  southern  part  of  this  elevated  region,  or  the  moun- 
tain of  Judah,  includes  the  mountains  of  Jerusalem,  viz :  Zion, 
which  David  selected  for  his  own  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  7), 
and  on  which  he  erected  a  temporary  tabernacle  for  the 
ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  12,  if.)  ;  Mount  Moriah,  on  which  Solomon 
built  the  temple  (2  Chron.  iii.  1),  and  where  Abraham  had 
been  directed  to  offer  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  2) ;  and  the  Mount 
of  Olives  on  the  east  side  of  the  city.  On  the  eastern 
border  of  this  mountain  district  of  Judah,  near  Jericho,  is 
Mount  Quarantania,  so  called  as  the  reputed  scene  of  our 
Lord's  temptation  and  fasting  for  forty  days.  At  the  foot 
of  this  mountain  is  a  spring,  said  to  be  the  one  which  Eli- 
sha  healed  by  casting  into  it  a  cruse  of  salt.  2  Kings  ii.  21. 

The  south-eastern  portion  of  this  high  table-land  was  the 
wilderness  of  Judah  (Judg.  i.  16),  different  portions  of 
which  went  by  different  names  derived  from  places  in  the 
vicinity,  as  the  wilderness  of  Tekoah  (2  Chron.  xx.  20), 
and  the  following,  which  occur  in  the  history  of  David  :  the 
wilderness  of  Engedi  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  1),  of  Maon  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  25),  of  Ziph.  1  Sam.  xxiii.  14.  Carmel,  also,  where 
Nabal  resided  (1  Sam.  xxv.),  is  in  this  region,  and  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  promontory  of  Mount  Carmel,  be- 


156  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

fore  described.  The  soutliern  extremity  of  the  mountain 
of  Judah,  where  it  abuts  upon  the  wilderness,  is  called  the 
mountain  of  the  Amorites.  Deut.  i.  7.  The  children  of 
Israel  presumptuously  undertook  to  enter  the  land  by  this 
route  after  they  had  been  condemned  to  retrace  their  steps 
in  the  wilderness,  and  were  in  consequence  smitten  before 
the  Amorites.  Deut.  i.  43,  44. 

The  elevated  district  east  of  the  Jordan  was  called  in  its 
northern  portion  the  hill  of  Bashan  (Ps.  Ixviii.  15),  cele- 
brated for  its  oaks  (Isa.  ii.  13)  and  for  its  cattle  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14;  Ps.  xxii.  12),  which  there  found  abundant  pas- 
turage. Farther  south  it  was  known  as  Mount  Gilead 
(Deut.  iii.  12),  and  opposite  the  Dead  Sea  the  range  took 
the  name  of  the  mountain  Abarim  (Deut.  xxxii.  49),  to 
which  belong  Mount  Nebo,  a  particular  summit,  and  Mount 
Pisgah,  a  portion  of  the  range  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1)  from  which 
Moses  saw  the  promised  land,  and  where  he  died  ;  also 
Mount  Peor,  to  which,  as  well  as  to  Pisgah,  Balak  brought 
Balaam  when  he  wished  him  to  curse  Israel. 

The  mountains  of  Palestine  are  mostly  composed  of 
limestone,  in  which  are  numerous  caves,  such  as  those  in 
which  the  Israelites  hid  from  fear  of  the  Midianites  (Judg.  vi. 
2),  or  of  the  Philistines.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6.  Five  kings  of  the 
Canaanites  concealed  themselves  in  the  cave  at  Makkedah 
(Josh.  X.  16)  ;  six  hundred  Benjamites  abode  in  the  rock 
Bimmon  four  months  (Judg.  xx.  47)  ;  David  and  his  men 
took  refuge  from  the  pursuit  of  Saul  in  the  cave  Adullam 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  1)  and  in  another  in  the  wilderness  of  En- 
gedi.  1  Sam.  xxiv.  3.  The  cave  in  Machpelah  was  pur- 
chased by  Abraham  for  a  burial-place  (Gen.  xxiii.  17),  and 
our  Lord's  body  was  laid  in  a  tomb  liewn  out  of  the  rock. 
Matt,  xxvii.  60. 

The  mountains  of  Bashan  consist  of  a  black  basalt,  which 
contains  no  caves  and  is  too  hard  to  be  hollowed  out.  This 
explains  the  circumstance  mentioned   (Deut.  iii.  4,  5)  as 


GEOGRAFHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  157 

peculiar  to  Bashan,  that  the  cities  were  fenced  with  high 
walls,  gates  and  bars.  In  the  regions  traversed  by  the 
children  of  Israel  previously  the  people  dwelt  largely  in 
habitations  excavated  from  the  rock,  as  in  the  Edomite  city 
of  Petra.  Obad.,  ver.  3.  But  in  Bashan  this  was  impossi- 
ble. The  only  way  in  which  they  could  there  provide  for 
mutual  defence  was  by  living  together  in  walled  cities. 


LESSOJV  11. 
PLAINS  AND   VALLEYS. 


The  valley  of  Jezreel  has  already  been  spoken  of  as 
intersecting  the  highlands  west  of  the  Jordan.  It  lies 
between  the  mountains  of  Galilee  on  the  north,  the  moun- 
tains of  Ephraira  on  the  south,  Mount  Carrael  on  the  west 
and  Mount  Gilboa  on  the  east,  and  is  perhaps  twenty  miles 
long  by  ten  broad.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  city  of 
Jezreel,  and  is  occasionally  called  the  valley  of  Megiddo 
from  another  town  included  within  its  limits.  2  Chron. 
XXXV.  22.  This  has  been  the  great  battle-ground  of  Pales- 
tine. Here  Gideon  gained  his  victory  over  the  Midianites 
(Judg.  vi.  32  ;  vii.  22) ;  here  the  Israelites  encamped  prior 
to  Saul's  last  battle  with  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1); 
here  the  Syrians  were  beaten  by  Ahab  when  they  said  the 
Lord  was  the  God  of  the  hills,  but  not  of  the  valleys  (1  Kings 
XX.  26)  ;  here  King  Josiah  was  slain  in  battle  with  the  king 
of  Egypt.  2  Kings  xxiii.  29.  It  was,  according  to  Jose- 
phus,  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Jews  and  the  Ro- 
mans under  Vespasian,  and  in  modern  times  the  French 
under  Napoleon  here  gained  a  victory  over  the  Turks. 

The  plain  along  the  sea-coast  is  divided  by  Mount  Car- 
mel.  That  portion  which  extends  northward  to  the  prom- 
ontory known  as  the  Ladder  of  Tyre  is  not  particularly 

14 


158  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

mentioned  m  Scripture.  The  other  portion,  extending  from 
Mount  Carmel  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Palestine,  is 
about  one  hundred  miles  in  length  and  from  twelve  to 
twenty  miles  in  breadth.  From  Carmel  to  Joppa  or  Jam- 
nia  it  was  called  the  plain  of  Sharon,  whose  fertility  and 
beauty  are  frequently  celebrated  in  the  Bible.  South  of 
this  it  was  called  the  vale  (Josh.  x.  48) ;  its  Hebrew  name, 
Sephela,  is  retained  in  1  Mace.  xii.  38.  The  valley  of  Sorek 
(Judg.  xvi.  4),  where  Samson  found  Delilah,  was  probably 
somewhere  in  this  Philistine  vale. 

The  plain  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  xiii.  10 ;  called,  Matt.  iii.  5, 
the  region  round  about  Jordan)  is  the  valley  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows.  It  is  of  varying  width  and  mostly 
bounded  on  each  side  by  steep  ascents.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Jericho  it  was  called  the  plain  of  the  valley  of  Jericho 
(Deut.  xxxiv.  3),  and  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  opposite  Jeri- 
cho, it  was  called  the  plains  of  Moab.  Num.  xx.  1.  As 
this  depression  continues  southward  from  the  Dead  Sea  to 
the  ^lanitic  gulf,  it  was  formerly  thought  that  the  Jordan 
flowed  by  this  channel  into  the  Red  Sea  prior  to  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  But  this  opinion  has 
been  abandoned  since  the  discovery  of  the  fact  that  this 
valley  for  a  considerable  distance  descends  northward  to- 
ward the  Dead  Sea,  and  that  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea 
itself  is  so  far  below  that  of  neighboring  seas.  The  Val- 
ley of  Salt,  where  David  smote  the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  xiii.  13), 
and  where  Amaziah  gained  a  victory  over  Edom  (2  Kings 
xiv.  7),  was  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  in  this  extension  of  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan. 

Seas,  Lakes  and  Riveks. 

The  Mediterranean  is  called  the  sea  (Num.  xxxiv.  5),  the 
great  sea  (vs.  6,  7),  the  uttermost  sea  (Deut.  xi.  24) — i.  e., 
the  hindmost  sea,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  western  sea, 
since  the  face  was  turned  to  the  ea?t  in  naming  the  points 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE    BIBLE.  159 

of  the  compass ;  it  is  also  entitled  the  sea  of  the  Philistiuea 
(Ex.  xxiii.  31),  because  the  Philistines  occupied  a  portion 
of  its  coast.  The  shores  of  this  sea  from  the  Ladder  of 
Tyre  northward  are  rocky  and  precipitous.  But  the  greater 
portion  of  the  coast  of  Palestine  is  low  and  sandy.  The 
only  good  harbor  is  that  lying  north  of  Carmel,  though 
voyages  were  made  to  and  from  Joppa  (Jon.  i.  3)  and  ves- 
sels landed  at  Csesarea.  Acts  xviii.  22. 

The  Jordan  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  Canaan,  prop- 
erly so  called,  or  the  dividing  line  between  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Palestine.  This  river  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
three  or  four  small  streams  which  descend  from  the  region 
of  Mount  Hermon.  It  flows  first  into  the  Lake  of  Merom, 
on  the  banks  of  which  Joshua  discomfited  Jabin,  king  of 
Hazor,  and  the  kings  that  were  with  him.  Josh.  xi.  7.  A 
few  miles  below  this  it  flows  through  the  Lake  of  Gennes- 
aret,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  as  it  is 
variously  called  in  the  New  Testament,  where  it  is  repeat- 
edly mentioned  in  connection  with  events  in  the  life  of  our 
Lord  ;  its  name  in  the  Old  Testament  is  the  Sea  of  Cinne- 
roth  (Josh.  xii.  3),  or,  wuth  a  slightly  different  orthography, 
Chiunereth.  Num.  xxxiv.  11.  This  lake  is  about  twelve 
miles  long  and  five  broad,  and  is  encased  among  beautiful 
and  verdant  hills,  having  on  the  west  the  table-land  of  Gali- 
lee and*on  the  east  the  still  steeper  and  loftier  region  of 
Bashan.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  clear  and  sweet,  and 
at  its  northern  extremity  abound  in  fish. 

Leaving  this  lake,  the  Jordan  continues  to  flow  due  south 
until  it  reaches  the  Dead  Sea,  called  also  the  sea  of  the 
plain,  the  salt  sea  (Deut.  iii.  7)  and  the  east  sea  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  18),  which  occupies  the  site  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
and  the  other  cities  of  the  plai  \,  which  were  destroyed  by 
fire  from  heaven,  whence  its  modern  name  among  the  na- 
tives of  that  region  is  the  Sea  of  Lot.  It  is  about  forty 
miles  long  and  ten  broad,  and  receives  its  current  desigua- 


160  PREPARING   TO    TEACH. 

tion, "  the  Dead  Sea,"  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  verdure 
on  its  shores  aud  no  life  in  its  waters,  which  are  acrid  and 
strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  salts. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Jordan  lies  throughout 
its  whole  extent  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Lake  of  Gennesaret  is  700  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  the  Dead  Sea  1300  feet  below  the  same  level. 
There  is  thus  a  fall  of  600  feet  between  them,  while  the 
distance  is  but  sixty  miles  in  a  direct  line,  though  trebled 
by  the  tortuous  course  of  the  river.  The  depth  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan,  bordered  as  it  is  by  high  mountains, 
which  shelter  it  from  cooling  winds  and  concentrate  tlie 
rays  of  the  sun,  makes  its  climate  almost  tropical  and  its 
harvest  a  fortnight  earlier  than  in  the  highlands  to  the  east 
of  it ;  and  the  great  heat  in  the  basin  of  the  Dead  Sea  pro- 
duces an  evaporation  which  balances  the  influx  of  the 
Jordan. 

All  the  streams  of  the  land  west  of  the  Jordan  flow 
either  east  into  this  river  or  west  into  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  watershed,  or  dividing  line  between  those  which  run 
in  one  direction  or  in  the  other,  lies  near  the  main  route, 
which  traverses  the  land  from  south  to  north,  and  passes 
through  its  principal  places,  Hebron,  Bethlehem,  Jerusalem, 
and  so  on  to  Nazareth.  The  line  which  separates  the  east- 
ern from  the  western  declivity  accordingly  runs  not  through 
the  centre  of  the  land,  but  considerably  nearer  its  eastern 
border,  making  the  western  slope  twice  as  long  as  the  east- 
ern, the  latter  being  in  the  same  proportion  more  precipi- 
tous. The  streams  which  fall  into  the  Jordan  are  conse- 
quently smaller  than  those  which  tmpty  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  partake  more  of  the  character  of  mountain  tor- 
rents. 

The  Shihor-libnath  (Josh.  xix.  26)  mentioned  in  the 
statement  of  the  boundaries  of  Asher  has  been  plausibly 
conjectured  to   be  the  Belus  of  classic  writers,  emptying 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  JIBLE.  161 

near  the  towu  of  Accho.  Upon  its  banks,  according  to 
Pliny  and  Tacitus,  glass  was  accidentally  discovered  by  the 
melting  of  its  sands.  According  to  some  eminent  author- 
ities, its  Hebrew  name  denotes  "  the  glass  river." 

The  Kishon  drains  the  valley  of  Jezreel  and  empties  near 
the  f.>ot  of  Mount  Carmel.  This  is  called  by  Deborah  "  that 
ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon,"  and  she  speaks  of  its 
sweeping  away  the  dead  bodies  of  Sisera's  host.  Judg.  v. 
21.  It  was  by  this  stream  that  Elijah  put  to  death  the 
prophets  of  Baal.  1  Kings  xviii.  40. 

The  streams  south  of  Carmel  are  more  insignificant  and 
of  less  note.  The  river  Kanah  (Josh.  xvi.  8),  or  "  brook 
of  reeds,"  is  only  mentioned  as  the  border  line  of  Eph- 
raim.  The  brook  Besor,  which  runs  south  of  Gaza,  was 
crossed  by  David  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9)  in  his  pursuit  of  the 
Amalekites  who  had  burned  Ziklag.  The  river  of  Egypt 
(Gen.  XV.  18)  is  the  last  of  these  streams,  and  marks  the 
southern  border  of  Palestine.  Its  modern  name  is  the 
wady  el-Arish. 

Of  the  trifling  streams  which  find  their  way  to  the  Jor- 
dan, the  only  ones  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  the  brook 
Cherith  (1  Kings  xvii.  3,  5),  wliere  Elijah  was  fed  by 
ravens,  and  which  Robinson  identifies  with  the  wady  Kelt, 
near  Jericho ;  the  waters  healed  by  Elisha  (2  Kings  ii.  21), 
also  in  the  vicinity  of  Jericho ;  and  the  Kedron  (John  xviii. 
1),  which  rises  near  Jerusalem  and  empties  into  the  Dead 
Sea. 

On  the  east  of  the  Jordan  we  find  three  principal  streams. 
The  Jarmuk  or  Hieromax  is  nowhere  referred  to  in  the 
Bible.  The  Jabbok  separated  the  land  of  the  Amorites 
from  Bashan,  and  subsequently  the  territory  of  Gad  from 
that  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh ;  it  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  account  of  Jacob's  return  from  Mesopotamia,  and 
it  was  on  its  banks  that  he  wrestled  with  the  angel  and  pre- 
vailed. Gen.  xxxii.  12.  And  finally  we  have  the  Aruon, 
14* 


162  PREPARING   TO   lEACH. 

which  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea  aud  separated  Moab  on  the 
south  from  Ammon  on  the  north. 

Climate. 

The  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons,  the  winter,  or  more 
properly  the  cold  season,  extending  from  October  to  March, 
and  the  summer,  or  warm  season,  from  April  to  Septem- 
ber. During  the  latter  no  rain  falls,  but  the  dews  are  very 
copious.  Hence,  "rain  in  harvest"  is  spoken  of  (Prov. 
xxvi.  1)  as  something  quite  out  of  place,  and  "  thunder  and 
rain  in  wheat  harvest"  were  sent  by  miracle  at  the  prayer 
of  Samuel.  1  Sam.  xii.  17.  The  first  rain,  commonly  styled 
the  early  rain,  fell  in  October,  after  which  the  winter  crops, 
principally  wheat  and  barley,  were  sown.  Rain  was  thence- 
forward liable  to  occur  at  intervals  until  March  and  the 
beginning  of  April,  which  was  the  end  of  the  rainfall  for 
the  year,  and  was  accordingly  known  as  the  period  of  the 
latter  rain.  Snow  is  not  infrequent  from  December  to  Feb- 
ruary, though  in  Jerusalem  it  rarely  lies  longer  than  a  sin- 
gle day. 

The  winds  from  the  west  and  south-west,  coming  from  the 
Mediterranean,  were  charged  with  moisture,  and  brought 
show^ers  and  rain  (Luke  xii.  54) ;  the  east  wind,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  desert  region  over  which  it  passed,  was  dry 
and  withering  in  its  effect.  Hos.  xiii.  15.  The  south  wind, 
proceeding  from  the  warm  countries  of  that  quarter,  brought 
heat.  Luke  xii.  bb.  The  hot  simoom  of  the  desert  appears 
to  be  alluded  to  (Ps.  xi.  6),  where  "an  horrible  tempest"  is 
literally  "  a  burning  wind."  This  never  blows  in  Palestine, 
though  it  does  in  the  neighboring  desert  of  Arabia. 

The  extraordinary  fertility  of  Palestine  is  celebrated  not 
only  in  the  Bible  (Deut.  viii.  7-9),  where  it  is  repeatedly 
called  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  8),  but 
also  by  the  classic  writers  of  antiquity;  and  this  is  con- 
firmed by  the  population  which  it  once  supported.     In  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  163 

lays  of  David  this  must  have  amounted  to  400  to  the 
square  mile ;  i.nd  according  to  Josephus,  the  population  was 
still  more  dense  in  his  time.  Its  present  condition  is  in 
lamentable  contrast  with  its  former  state.  The  land  has 
been  desolated  by  the  curse  of  centuries.  Property  has 
been  rendered  so  insecure  by  the  wars  which  have  raged 
there,  by  the  exactions  of  oppressive  rulers  and  by  the  in- 
cursions of  predatory  tribes,  that  large  portions  are  left 
waste  and  uncultivated.  And  by  the  neglect  of  ages  the 
soil  has  been  allowed  to  be  washed  from  the  hillsides  and 
other  exposed  situations,  until  the  fruitful  land  has  actually 
been  converted  into  barrenness.  Ps.  cvii.  34. 

Inhabitants  and  Civil  Divisions. 

When  Israel  entered  Canaan,  it  was  held  by  seven  na- 
tions, the  Hittites,  Girgashites,  Amorites,  Canaanites,  Per- 
izzites,  Hivites  and  Jebusites.  Deut.  vii.  1.  In  Gen.  xv. 
19-21  ten  nations  are  spoken  of,  but  the  Kenites,  Keniz- 
zites  and  Kadmonites  may  have  been  subdivisions  of  one 
or  other  of  the  seven  alreadv  mentioned.  These  various 
tribes,  which  were  descended  from  Canaan,  the  youngest  son 
of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  15,  fF.),  were  not,  however,  the  original 
occupants  of  the  land.  We  find  occasional  allusions  to  an 
antecedent  population,  which  from  their  powerful  frames 
and  great  stature  were  called  Rephaim  or  giants.  Gen. 
xiv.  5.  To  these  belonged  the  Anakim  (Num.  xiii.  33),  the 
Emims  (Deut.  ii.  10),  who  are  described  as  "  a  people  great 
and  many,  and  tall  as  the  Anakims,"  the  Horims  (ver.  12), 
the  Zamzummims  (ver.  20)  and  the  Avims.  ver.  23. 

The  Philistines,  who  resided  in  the  south-western  portion 
of  the  land,  belonged  to  a  different  stratum  of  population 
from  either  of  the  preceding.  The  name  properly  means 
"emigrants"  or  "aliens."  They  were  descended,  not  from 
Canaan,  but  from  Mizraim,  another  son  of  Ham.  Gen.  x. 
14.     According  to  Amoi  ix.  7,  they  came  from  Caphtor, 


164  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

(which  has  been  variously  identified  with  Cappadocia,  with 
the  island  of  Crete  and  with  a  portion  of  Egypt),  and  seized 
upon  the  territory  previously  possessed  by  the  Avims  (Deut. 
ii.  23)  in  the  region  of  Azza — that  is,  Gaza.  The  Philis- 
tines are  spoken  of  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xxi.  34)  and  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  1)  in  the  region  of  Beer- 
sheba  and  Gerar;  also  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  as  hold- 
ing the  direct  route  from  Egypt  to  Palestine.  They  were 
not  conquered  by  Joshua,  and  he  does  not  even  seem  to 
have  come  into  collision  with  them,  as  they  are  not  men- 
tioned in  any  of  his  battles.  They  are  but  once  referred  to 
in  the  book  of  Joshua  (xiii.  2,  3),  and  that  simply  as  a  peo- 
ple to  be  subdued.  In  the  perjod  of  the  Judges  they  for  a 
time  gained  the  ascendency  over  Israel,  until  their  power 
was  broken  by  Samuel  (1  Sara.  vii.  13),  and  they  were  still 
further  humbled  by  Saul  and  by  David.  They  were  not 
exterminated,  however,  and  we  hear  of  them  in  the  reigns 
of  the  later  kings  as  sometimes  tributary  and  sometimes 
making  incursions  and  predatory  forays.  They  are  once 
spoken  of  by  Zechariah  (ix.  6)  after  the  return  from  the 
Babylonish  exile,  but  from  that  time  they  vanish  out  of 
history. 

When  Israel  took  possession  of  Canaan,  two  tribes  and  a 
half  were  settled  east  of  the  Jordan,  viz.,  Reuben  on  the 
south.  Gad  in  the  middle  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh 
on  the  north.  The  other  nine  and  a  half  tribes  were 
located  west  of  the  Jordan ;  Judah,  Simeon,  Dan  and  Ben- 
jamin were  in  the  south ;  Ephraifti,  Issachar  and  the  other 
half  of  Manasseh  were  in  the  middle  or  central  portion 
of  the  land ;  Zebulun,  Asher  and  Naphtali  were  in  the 
north.  The  tribe  of  Levi  had  no  separate  inheritance  in 
the  land,  but  forty-eight  cities,  with  their  suburbs,  were  as- 
signed to  them  in  the  territory  of  the  other  tribes.  Josh.  xxi. 
This  partition  among  the  tribes  was,  at  the  time  of  the 
schism  of  Jeroboam,  superseded   by  another,  or  rather  a 


GEOGRAPHY     OF  THE  BIBLE.  165 

fresh  division  of  yet  greater  political  importance  was  super- 
induced upon  it,  viz.,  that  into  two  rival  and  often  hostile 
kingdoms.  Ten  tribes  adhered  to  the  northern  section, 
which  was  called  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  sometimes 
the  kingdom  of  Ephraim,  from  the  preponderance  of  that 
powerful  tribe.  Judah  and  Benjamin  adhered  to  the  south- 
ern, which  was  called  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 

Under  the  Romans  and  in  the  times  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  current  division  was  into  Judea,  Samaria  and 
Galilee  on  the  west  of  Jordan,  and  Perea  on  the  east  of 
Jordan.  The  name  Perea  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, but  ii  is  referred  to  as  the  region  beyond  Jordan. 
Matt.  iv.  25. 


LESSOR  III. 
CITIES. 


The  cities,  towns  and  villages  of  Palestine  may  be  con- 
veniently grouped  in  four  lines  from  north  to  south,  corre- 
sponding to  the  main  physical  features  of  the  country  as 
already  described.  Omitting  those  which  are  rarely  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible,  or  which  are  of  little  consequence,  we 
shall  give  a  cursory  view  of  the  principal  places  situated — 
1.  On  the  plain  along  the  sea-coast ;  2.  On  the  central  high- 
lands west  of  the  Jordan ;  3.  In  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  ; 
4.  On  the  highlands  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Cities  near  the  Sea-coast. 

Proceeding  from  the  north  southward,  we  first  come  to 
three  cities  commonly  reckoned  as  belonging  to  Phenicia 
rather  than  to  Palestine,  viz, : 

Zidon  or  Sidon,  which  was  assigned  to  Asher,  though 
never  conquered  and  occupied  by  that  tribe.  Judg.  i.  31. 


IQQ  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Zarephath  or  Sarepta,  the  village  where  Elijah  was  nour- 
ished by  the  widow.  1  Kings  xvii.  9 ;  Luke  iv.  26. 

Tyre  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Zidon,  which  in  the 
time  of  Joshua  still  maintained  its  original  superiority,  and 
is  hence  called  "great  Zicion"  (Josh.  xi.  8;  xix.  29);  but 
by  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon,  Tyre  had  outstripped 
the  mother  city,  and  had  become  the  capital  of  Phenicia. 
1  Kings  V.  1,6.  Tyre  was  famous  in  antiquity  not  only  for 
its  extensive  trade,  but  for  the  sieges  which  it  sustained, 
Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  besieged  it  for  five  years 
without  being  able  to  reduce  it.  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon,  besieged  it  for  thirteen  years.  Alexander  the 
Great  reduced  it  after  a  siege  of  seven  months.  The  city 
has  long  since  ceased  to  exist,  and  is,  as  was  predicted,  a 
place  for  the  spreading  of  nets.  Ezek.  xxvi.  5. 

Accho  lay  across  the  bay  from  Mount  Carmel.  It  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  though  it  was  not  conquered 
by  them.  Judg.  i.  31.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  called 
Ptolemais,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  travels  of  the  apostle 
Paul.  Acts  xxi.  7.  Under  its  modern  name,  Acre,  it  was 
famous  in  the  history  of  the  Crusaders,  and  was  held  by 
them  for  some  time  after  the  rest  of  Palestine  had  been 
abandoned. 

South  of  the  promontory  of  Carmel  we  find  Csesarea, 
so  called  by  Herod  in  honor  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  com- 
monly known  as  Caesarea  Palsestina,  to  distinguish  it  from 
Csesarea  Philippi,  which  lay  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  and  was  so  called  from 
Philip,  the  tetrarch  of  that  region  (Luke  iii.  1),  who  named 
it  Csesarea  in  honor  of  Tiberias  Caesar.  Caesarea  Phili})pi 
is  mentioned  in  our  Lord's  history  (Matt.  xvi.  13;  Mark 
viii.  27),  as  he  was  once  in  its  vicinity.  Caesarea  of  Pales- 
tine is  spoken  of  repeatedly  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
The  evangelist  Philip,  one  of  the  seven  original  deacons, 
resided  there  (Acts  viii.  40 ;  xxi.  8),  so  did  Cornelius  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  167 

centurion  (Acts  x.  1):  here  Herod  Agrippa  came  to  his 
miserable  end  (Acts  xii.  13,  ff.),  and  it  is  several  times  men- 
tioned in  the  narrative  both  of  Paul's  travels  and  of  his 
imprisonment,  being  the  residence  of  the  Koman  governors 
of  Judea. 

Antipatris  is  the  place  to  which  Paul  was  sent  by  the 
chief  captain  of  Jerusalem  on  his  way  to  Csesarea  after  his 
arrest.  Acts  xxiii.  31. 

Joppa  or  Japho  (Josh.  xix.  46)  lay  in  the  border  of  the 
territory  assigned  to  Dan.  The  cedars  of  Lebanon  were 
conveyed  by  sea  to  this  place  for  building  Solomon's  tem- 
ple (2  Chron.  ii.  16),  and  again  after  the  exile  for  building 
the  second  temple.  Ezra  iii.  7.  Jonah  took  ship  from  Joppa 
when  fleeing  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord.  Jon.  i.  3. 
Peter  here  restored  Tabitha  to  life  (Acts  ix.  36,  ff.),  and  he 
saw  here  the  vision  of  the  sheet  let  down  from  heaven. 
Acts  X. 

Lydda  or  Lod  (Neh.  xi.  35)  lay  in  the  vicinity  of  Joppa, 
on  the  road  to  Jerusalem  ;  here  Peter  restored  Eneas.  Acts 
ix.  32,  ff. 

The  neighboring  Ramleh  is  by  many  regarded  as  the 
Arimathea  of  the  New  Testament  (Matt,  xxvii.  57)  and  the 
Ramathaim-Zophim  of  1  Sara.  i.  19,  also  often  called  Ra- 
mah,  where  the  prophet  Samuel  was  born,  lived  and  died, 
though  their  identity  is  disputed. 

Then  follow  the  five  cities  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  vi, 
17),  which  may  be  traced  in  a  circuit  in  alphabetical  order* 
Ashkelon,  Ashdod,  Ekron,  Gath,  Gaza. 

Cities  of  the  Western  Highland. 

These  are  mostly  situated  on  the  crest  which  divides  the 
eastern  from  the  western  declivity,  or  the  waters  flowing 
east  from  those  flowing  west,  the  summits  having  been  built 
upon  because  they  were  the  most  impregnable  and  easily 
defensible  positions.     This  too  is  the  main  traveled  route 


168  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

from  south  to  north.     Beginning  at  the  south  and  proceecT- 
ing  northward,  we  come  first  to — 

Ziklag,  in  the  southern  boundary  of  Judah,  according  to 
the  original  apportionment  (Josh.  xv.  31),  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  5),  presented  to  David  by 
Achish,  king  of  Gath  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6),  and  sacked  by  the 
Amalekites,  whom  David  chastised  in  consequence.  1  Sam. 
XXX.  David  was  in  Ziklag  at  the  time  of  Saul's  death. 
2  Sam.  i.  1. 

Beersheba  received  its  name  from  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi.  31), 
and  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  sojournings  of  the  patri- 
archs ;  from  the  sacredness  thus  attached  to  it,  it  became  one  of 
the  chief  seats  of  idolatry,  and  is  so  spoken  of  by  the  prophet 
Amos.  V.  5 ;  viii.  4.  It  lay  near  the  southern  border  of  Pales- 
tine, as  did  Dan  near  the  northern ;  whence  the  phrase  "from 
Dan  to  Beersheba"  (Judg.  xx.  1)  denoted  the  entire  land. 

Hebron,  called  by  the  Canaanites  Kirjath-arba  or  city 
of  Arba  (Josh.  iv.  15),  was  for  some  time  the  abode  of 
Abraham.  Gen.  xiii.  18.  Here,  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
Abraliam  and  Sarah  were  buried,  as  well  as  Isaac  and  Re- 
bekah,  Jacob  and  Leah.  Gen.  xlix.  31.  In  the  division 
of  the  land  it  was  given  to  Caleb  as  his  possession  (Josh, 
xiv.  14),  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  west  of  the 
Jordan  (Josh.  xx.  7),  the  other  two  being  Shechem,  in  the 
centre  of  the  land,  and  Kedesh,  in  the  north.  David  reigned 
here  over  Judah  seven  years  and  six  months  (2  Sam.  ii.  11), 
and  was  here  anointed  king  over  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  v.  3), 
after  which  he  transferred  his  capital  to  Jerusalem.  It  was 
at  Hebron  that  Absalom  began  his  rebellion.     2  Sam.  xv.  10. 

Bethlehem,  also  called  Ephrath  and  Bethlehem-judah,  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  Betlilehem  of  little  note  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun.  Near  this  place  Rachel  was  buried. 
Gen.  XXXV.  19.  Here  Elimelech  and  Naomi  lived  (Ruth 
i.  1),  and  hither  Naomi  returned  with  Ruth  after  a  tempo- 
rary sojourn  in  the  laud  of  Moab  (Ruth  i.  22),  and  here 


GEOGBAniY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  169 

David  was  born.  1  Sam.  xvii.  12.  But  Bethlehem  is 
chiefly  distinguished  as  the  birthplace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  (Matt.  ii.  1),  agreeably  to  the  prophecy  of  Micah. 
V.  2. 

Jerusalem,  originally  called  Salem  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  and 
during  the  Jebusite  occupation  Jebus  (Judg.  xix.  10),  was 
made  by  David  the  capital  of  his  kingdom  and  the  relig- 
ious centre  of  the  nation  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jebusites. 
2  Sam.  V.  6-9. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  toward  the  east,  lay 
Bethany,  the  residence  of  Lazarus  and  his  sisters  (John 
xi.  18);  Nob,  where  Ahimelech  the  priest  gave  David  the 
shew-bread  and  the  sword  of  Goliath  (1  Sam.  21),  in  con- 
sequence of  which  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  put 
to  death  by  Saul;  and  Anathoth,  a  city  of  the  priests 
within  the  limits  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  xxi.  18),  to  which 
Abiathar  was  banished  by  King  Solomon  (1  Kings  ii.  26), 
and  where  the  proj)het  Jeremiah  was  born.  Jer.  i.  1. 

To  the  west  of  Jerusalem  lay  Mizpeh,  where  the  children 
of  Israel  assembled  themselves  before  the  Lord,  when  they 
went  up  to  war  against  Benjamin  (Judg;  xx.  1  ;  xxi.  1), 
where  Samuel  gained  his  great  victory  over  the  Philistines 
(1  Sam.  vii.  10),  and  where  Saul  was  chosen  king  (1  Sam. 
ii.  17,  ff.);  Emmaus,  whither  our  Lord  walked  with  two 
disciples  after  his  resurrection  (Luke  xxiv.  13),  and  which 
should  not  be  confounded  with  another  Emmaus,  also  called 
Kicopolis,  on  the  road  to  Lydda  and  Joppa,  which  is  no- 
where mentioned  in  the  Old  or  New  Testament,  though  it  is 
in  the  Apocrypha  and  by  Josephus;  and  Gibeon,  whose  in- 
habitants made  peace  with  Joshua  by  a  stratagem  (Josh.  ix. 
3),  and  which  was  subsequently  a  city  of  the  priests  (Josh. 
xxi.  17),  and  where  the  tabernacle  of  Moses  was  tempo- 
rarily located.    2  Chron.  i.  3. 

Again  proceeding  northward  from  Jerusalem  by  the 
main  route,  we  come  to — 

15 


170  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Gibeah,  called  also  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  and  Gibeah  of 
Saul,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  places  of  this  name  in 
different  parts  of  the  land.  Here  the  crime  was  committed 
in  the  period  of  the  judges  which  led  to  the  almost  total 
extinction  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  Judg.  ch.  xix,  xx. 
Here  King  Saul  resided  (1  Sam.  x.  26),  and  here  seven  of 
Saul's  descendants  were  executed  to  appease  the  Gibeonites. 
2  Sam.  xxi.  6. 

Ramah  was  near  Gibeah  (Judg.  xix.  13),  and  was  forti- 
fied by  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  as  a  border  city  between  the 
two  kingdoms.  1  Kings  xv.  17.  This  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  Kamah  where  the  prophet  Samuel  lived,  which 
has  not  been  certainly  identified,  though  it  may  have  been 
the  same  with  the  modern  Ramleh. 

Beeroth,  in  the  Canaanitish  period  subject  to  Gibeon 
(Josh.  ix.  17)  ;  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth,  the  son  of 
Saul,  were  natives  of  this  place.  2  Sam.  iv.  2. 

Bethel,  originally  called  Luz,  where  God  appeared  twice 
to  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.  11,  ff. ;  xxxv.  15),  and  where  the  ark 
was  kept  temporarily.  Judg.  xx.  26,  27.  ["  The  house  of 
God  "  (ver.  26)  is  properly  "  Bethel."]  It  was  one  of  the 
places  where  the  prophet  Samuel  judged.  1  Sam.  vii.  16. 
The  worship  of  the  golden  calves  was  set  up  here  and  at 
Dan,  in  the  north  of  the  land,  by  Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xii. 
28,  29) ;  the  idolatry  of  Bethel  was  finally  abolished  by 
Josiah.  2  Kings  xxiii.  15. 

Shiloh,  where  the  ark  and  the  tabernacle  remained  from 
the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh,  xviii.  1)  to  that  of  Samuel.  1 
Sam.  iv.  4. 

Shechem,  spoken  of  several  times  in  the  history  of  the 
patriarchs,  a  Levitical  city  and  a  city  of  refuge.  Josh.  xxi. 
21.  Here  Joshua  delivered  his  last  address  to  the  people. 
Josh.  xxiv.  1.  Jeroboam  made  it  his  residence  after  the 
schism.  1  Kings  xii.  25.  In  John  (iv.  5)  it  is  called  Sychar ; 
it  was  'there  that  our  Lord  conversed  with  the  woman  of 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  171 

Samaria  oeside  Jacob's  well.  It  was  subsequently  called 
Neapolis,  and  in  modern  times  this  has  been  corrupted  to 
Nablus. 

Samaria,  built  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xvi.  24), 
from  which  time  it  was  the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes,  until 
the  kingdom  was  finally  overthrown  by  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria.  2  Kings  xviii.  9,  10. 

Jezreel,  which  gives  name  to  the  valley  on  the  edge  of 
which  it  lies.  Here  Ahab  had  a  palace,  here  was  the  vine- 
yard of  Naboth  which  Ahab  coveted  (1  Kings  xxi.  1),  and 
here  King  Joram,  Jezebel  and  the  whole  house  of  Ahab 
were  slain  by  Jehu.  2  Kings  ch.  ix.,  x. 

A  short  distance  westward  in  the  valley  is  Megiddo, 
where  King  Josiah  was  slain  in  battle  with  Pharaoh-necho, 
king  of  Egypt.  2  Kings  xxiii.  29. 

Shunem,  where  the  Philistines  encamped  against  Saul 
prior  to  his  last  battle  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4),  and  where  the 
woman  lived  who  entertained  Elisha,  and  whose  son  he 
raised  from  the  dead.  2  Kings  iv.  8. 

Nain,  where  our  Lord  restored  the  widow's  son.  Luke 
vii.  11. 

Endor,  where  Saul  consulted  the  woman  with  a  familiar 
spirit.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  7. 

Nazareth,  where  our  Lord's  childhood  was  passed.  Luke 
iv.  16. 

Gath-hepher,  the  residence  of  the  prophet  Jonah.  2  Kings 
xiv.  25. 

Cana,  where  our  Lord's  first  miracle  was  wrought.  John 
ii.  1. 

Kedesh,  a  Levitical  city  and  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xxi. 
32),  and  the  residence  of  Barak,  Judg.  iv.  6. 

Cities  in"  the  Plain  of  the  Jordan.    ""^^ 
Beginning  in  the  north  and  proceeding  southward  we  find — 
Dan,  also  called  Laish  or  Leshem,  first  mentioned  in  the 


172  PREPARING   TO  TEACH. 

life  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv.  14),  taken  possession  of  by  a 
party  of  Danites,  though  the  proper  territory  of  their  tribe 
lay  in  the  south  of  the  land.  Josh.  xix.  47  ;  Judg.  xviii.  29. 
It  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calves  established  by  Jeroboam.  1  Kings  xii.  29. 

Csesarea  Philippi,  already  spoken  of  as  distinguished  from 
Csesarea  Palsestina  on  the  coast. 

Then  follow  several  places  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of 
Gennesaret  familiar  from  the  history  of  our  Lord's  min- 
istry— Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum  (Matt.  xi.  21,  23), 
Magdala  (Matt.  xv.  39),  Dalmanutha  (Mark  viii.  10), 
Tiberias  (John  vi.  23),  and,  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake, 
Gadara.  Luke  viii.  26. 

Beth-shan,  where  Saul's  body  was  fastened  to  the  wall 
of  the  town,  and  thus  publicly  exposed  by  the  Philistines. 
1  Sam.  xxxi.  10.  Its  later  name,  Scythopolis,  has  been 
thought  to  confirm  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that  the 
Scythians  once  made  an  irruption  into  this  region. 

Bethabara,  where  John  baptized  (John  i.  28),  probably 
the  same  as  Beth-barah  (Judg.  vii.  24),  where  Gideon 
checked  the  Midianites  at  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan. 

Jericho,  also  called  the  city  of  palm  trees  (Dent,  xxxiv. 
3),  was  the  first  city  taken  by  Joshua.  Josh.  ch.  vi.  The 
curse  pronounced  on  him  who  should  rebuild  the  walls 
miraculously  thrown  down  (Josh.  vi.  26)  was  fulfilled  upon 
Hiel  the  Bethelite.  1  Kings  xvi.  34.  Sons  or  pupils  of  the 
prophets  were  residing  in  Jericho  in  the  time  of  Elijah  and 
Elisha  (2  Kings  ii.  5) ;  here  Elisha  healed  the  fountain  by 
casting  in  salt  (2  Kings  ii.  21);  here  King  Zedekiah  was  over- 
taken when  attempting  to  flee  from  the  Chaldeans  (2  Kings 
XXV.  5) ;  here  our  Lord  was  the  guest  of  Zaccheus  (Luke  xix. 
1-5)  and  cured  the  blindness  of  Bartimeus.  Luke  xviii.  35. 

Gilgal  was  the  first  encampment  of  Israel  in  the  promised 
land.  Josh.  iv.  19.  Sacrifices  were  offered  here  by  Samuel 
(1  Sam.  X.  8;  xi.  15)  and  by  Saul.  1  Sam.  xiii.  7-9.    This 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  173 

was  one  of  the  places  of  Samuel's  judgment.  1  Sam.  vii.  16. 
Agag,  king  of  the  Amalekites,  was  here  hewed  to  death  by 
Samuel  before  the  Lord.  1  Sam.  xv.  33.  Judah  came  to 
Gilgal  to  meet  King  David  returning  after  the  death  of 
Absalom.  2  Sam.  xix.  16.  It  is  also  mentioned  in  the  life  of 
Elijah  (2  Kings  ii.  1),  and  was  the  scene  of  one  of  Elisha's 
miracles.  2  Kings  iv.  38.  There  was  another  Gilgal  in  the 
vicinity  of  Antipatris,  to  which  it  has  been  supposed  by 
several  scholars  that  some  of  these  events  are  to  be  referred. 

En-gedi  lay  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  David 
concealed  himself  in  the  adjacent  wilderness  when  pursued 
by  Saul.  1  Sam.  xxiv.  1.  Here  Ammon,  Moab  and  Edom 
combined  against  Jehoshaphat  when  he  gained  his  signal 
victory  over  them.  2  Chron.  xx.  2. 

The  Dead  Sea  covers  the  sites  of  the  cities  of  the  plain 
which  God  overthrew  by  fire  from  heaven — Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  Admah  and  Zeboim.  Deut.  xxix.  23.  Zoar  was 
spared  at  Lot's  intercession  when  the  rest  were  consumed. 
Gen.  xix.  21,  22. 

Kadesh-barnea  was  on  the  southern  border  of  Palestine. 
Num.  xxxiv.  4.  It  was  from  this  place  the  spies  were  sent 
who  brought  back  an  evil  report  of  the  land.  Num.  xiii.  26. 
Here  Miriam  died  (Num.  xx.  1)  and  Moses  and  Aaron 
committed  the  trespass  which  excluded  them  from  the 
promised  land.  Num.  xx.  12. 

Cities  East  of  the  Jordan. 

Beginning  in  the  south  and  proceeding  northward — 
Machserus  was  a  strong  fortress  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  which 
is  not  named  in  the  Bible,  but  where,  according  to  Jose- 
phus,  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  and  executed. 

Ramoth-gilead,  a  Levitical  city  (Josh.  xxi.  38),  and  one 
of  the  three  cities  of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xx. 
8),  the  other  two  being  Bezer  in  the  south  and  Golan  in 
the  north.  Here  Ahab  was  slain  in  battle  by  the  Syrians 
(1    Kings  xxii.   29-34),   Joram,   the   son   of  Ahab,   was 

16* 


174  PREPARING  TO   TEACH, 

wounded  (2  Kings  viii.  28),  and  Jehu  was  anointed  king 
over  Israel  by  Elisha's  direction.  2  Kings  ix.  1,  2. 

Mahanaim,  where  Jacob  was  met  by  the  angels  of  God 
as  he  was  returning  to  Canaan  from  Padan-aram  (Gen. 
xxxii.  2),  where  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son,  was  made  king  in 
opposition  to  David  (2  Sam.  ii.  8),  and  whither  David  fled 
when  pursued  by  Absalom.  2  Sam.  xvii.  24. 

Jabesh-gilead,  from  which  wives  were  taken  for  the  rem- 
nant of  Benjamin  in  the  general  massacre  of  the  tribe. 
Judg.  xxi.  14.  It  was  threatened  by  the  Ammonites  and 
relieved  by  Saul.  1  Sam.  xi.  1-11.  Its  inhabitants  took  the 
bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  from  the  scene  of  their  shame- 
ful exposure  by  the  Philistines,  and  buried  them.  1  Sam. 
xxxi.  11-13. 


LESSOJ^  IV, 
OTHER  BIBLE  LANDS. 


Antediluvian  geography  embraces  the  garden  of  Eden 
(Gen.  ii.  8,  ff.),  with  its  four  rivers,  the  Pison,  which  com- 
passed the  land  of  Havilah,  the  Gihon,  which  compassed 
the  land  of  Cush,*  the  Hiddekel  and  the  Euphrates ;  also 
the  land  of  Nod  (Gen.  iv.  19),  to  which  Cain  was  banished, 
and  the  city  of  Enoch  (ver.  17),  built  by  him.  None  of 
these  can  be  certainly  identified  at  the  present  time,  except 
the  two  rivers  the  Euphrates  and  the  Hiddekel,  which  is 
the  Hebrew  name  for  the  Tigris.  Dan.  x.  4. 

After  the  flood  the  ark  rested  upon  the  mountains  of 
Ararat  (Gen.  viii.  4),  which  is  not  in  the  Bible  the  name 
of  a  single  peak,  but  of  the  high  table-land  of  Armenia 

*  See  the  margin  of  the  English  version.  It  is  not  the  Ethiopia 
known  to  later  history  which  is  intended,  but  some  region  now  un- 
known, which  was  occupied  by  Cush  (Gen.  x.  7),  or  a  portion  of  his 
descendants. 


GEOGjtiAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  175 

(2  Kings  xix.  37 ;  Jer.  li.  27),  which  contains  the  sources 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  On  the  banks  of  the  former, 
in  the  lower  portion  of  its  course,  lay  the  land  of  Shinar 
(Gen.  xi.  2),  where  the  tower  of  Babel  was  built,  whose 
site  was  subsequently  enclosed  in  the  great  city  of  Babylon. 
In  the  days  of  Abraham  the  king  of  Shinar,  with  others, 
invaded  Canaan.  Gen.  xiv.  1.  A  goodly  Babylonish  gar- 
ment is  mentioned  among  the  spoils  of  the  city  of  Jericho 
when  it  was  taken  by  Joshua.  Josh.  vii.  21.  Babylon 
reached  its  greatest  splendor  and  the  height  of  its  power 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  iv.  30),  by  whom  Jerusalem 
was  destroyed  and  Judah  carried  into  captivity.  Its  superb 
palaces  and  other  structures,  and  the  vast  compass  and 
height  of  its  walls,  made  it  the  wonder  of  the  world.  After 
its  capture  by  Cyrus  (Isa.  xlv.  1)  it  gradually  declined 
until  it  became  an  utter  desolation.  Isa.  xiii.  19,  ff.  The 
cities  of  Erech,  Accad  and  Calneh  (or  Calno,  Isa.  x.  9), 
which,  with  Babel,  formed  the  beginning  of  Nimrod's  king- 
dom, were  also  in  the  land  of  Shinar.  Gen.  x.  10.  So  was 
the  plain  of  Dura  (Dan.  iii.  1),  where  Nebuchadnezzar  set 
up  his  golden  image. 

Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria,  an  exceeding  great  city 
of  three  days'  journey  (Jon.  iii.  3),  lay  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Tigris.  Rehoboth,  Calah  and  Resen  (Gen.  x.  11, 
12)  were  in  the  same  vicinity.  Cuthah,  Ava  (or  Ivah), 
Sepharvaim  (2  Kings  xvii.  24)  and  Hena  (xix.  13)  were 
on  or  near  the  Euphrates,  and  subject  to  the  king  of 
Assyria. 

Media  is  in  the  Bible  commonly  associated  with  Persia, 
to  which  it  was  united  under  Cyrus  and  his  successors. 
Dan.  V.  28 ;  Esth.  i.  3.  The  captive  Israelites  were  located 
by  the  king  of  Assyria  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes,  and  by 
Habor,  the  river  of  Gozan.  2  Kings  xvii.  6.  Whether  this 
is  the  same  as  the  river  Chebar  (Ezek.  iii.  15),  where  the 
captives  of  Judah  were  subsequently  settled,  is  disputed. 


176  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

The  capital  of  Media  was  Achmetha  (Ezra  vi.  2),  or 
Ecbatana;  this  was  the  royal  residence  of  Cyrus,  where, 
accordingly,  the  official  records  of  his  reign  were  preserved. 
Elam  was  at  first  an  independent  kingdom  (Gen.  xiv.  1), 
but  was  afterward  incorporated  in  the  Persian,  empire. 
Its  chief  city,  Shushan,  near  the  river  Ulai  (Dan.  viii.  2), 
was  the  residence  of  Darius  and  the  later  Persian  kings. 
Parthians  are  mentioned  (Acts  ii.  9),  along  with  Medes  and 
Elamites,  as  present  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
India  is  once  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (Esth.  i.  1),  and  it  has 
even  been  conjectured  that  China  is  referred  to  under  the 
name  of  Sinim.  Isa.  xlix.  12. 

The  district  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  north  of 
Babylonia,  is  known  as  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xi.  10),  or 
Padan-aram.  Gen.  xxv.  20.  Here  was  Haran  (Gen.  xi.  31), 
to  which  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  removed  from  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees,  which  some  likewise  place  in  this  same 
region,  though  others,  with  greater  probability,  seek  for  it 
further  south,  in  Chaldea  proper  or  Babylonia.  Pethor,  the 
native  place  of  Balaam,  was  in  Mesopotamia.  Deut.  xxiii.  4. 
So  was  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates,  where  Nebuchadnezzar 
gained  a  victory  over  Pharaoh-necho.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20 ; 
Jer.  xlvi.  2. 

Padan-aram,  literally,  the  plain  of  Aram,  is  a  part  of 
the  territory  called  Aram  (Num.  xxiii.  7),  or  Syria,  in  the 
Old  Testament,  where  this  term  is  used  in  its  widest  sense 
as  extending  from  Lebanon  to  the  Tigris.  Hence  Bethuei 
and  Laban  are  called  Syrians  because  they  resided  in 
Padan-aram.  Gen.  xxv.  20.  More  commonly  the  term  is 
restricted  to  the  territory  west  of  the  Euphrates ;  and  so 
understood,  it  was  in  the  time  of  Saul  and  David  divided 
into  several  minor  states  or  kingdoms,  as  Bethrehob,  Zobah, 
Maacah  (2  Sam.  x.  6),  Geshur  (2  Sam.  xiii.  37 ;  xv.  8) 
and  Damascus.  2  Sam.  viii.  6.  Tiphsah,  on  the  Euphrates, 
is  spoken  of  (1  Kings  iv.  24)  as  marking  the  eastern  limit 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  177 

of  Solomon's  dominions.  Taclmor,  built  by  Solomon  in  the 
wilderness,  is  known  in  later  times  as  Palmyra.  Damascus, 
in  a  fertile  plain  watered  by  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2 
Kings  V.  12),  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  time  of  Abraham. 
Gen.  XV.  2.  It  was  subdued  by  David  (2  Sara.  viii.  6),  but 
recovered  its  independence  under  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi.  24), 
and  was  subsequently  the  capital  of  a  formidable  power. 
To  this  city  Paul  was  going  at  the  time  of  his  conversion 
(Acts  ix.  3),  and  he  lodged  there  in  the  street  which  was 
called  Straight.  It  was  at  this  time  subject  to  Aretas,  an 
Arabian  king.  2  Cor.  xii.  32.  Antioch,  on  the  river  Orontes, 
was  the  city  where  the  disciples  were  first  called  Christians 
(Acts  xi.  26),  and  from  which  the  apostle  Paul  set  forth  on 
his  missionary  journeys.  Its  seaport  was  Seleucia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  whence  Paul  and  Barnabas  sailed  for 
Cyprus.  Hamath,  called  by  the  prophet  Amos  (vi.  2) 
Haraath  the  Great,  was  situated  on  the  Orontes,  about  mid- 
way between  Antioch  and  the  source  of  the  river.  The 
entrance  of  Hamath,  repeatedly  mentioned  as  the  limit  of 
the  promised  land  (Num.  xxxiv.  8;  1  Kings  viii.  65),  is 
either  a  stream  or  depression  by  which  Hamath  was  readily 
reached  from  the  sea-coast.  Still  higher  on  the  Orontes 
was  Riblah,  in  the  land  of  Hamath,  where  Jehoahaz  was 
put  in  chains  by  the  king  of  Egypt  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33), 
and  the  eyes  of  Zedekiah  were  put  out  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
2  Kings  XXV.  7.  ^ 

We  shall  now  pass  from  countries  east  of  Palestine  to 
those  which  lay  south  of  it.  South  of  the  territory  of 
Israel,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Ar- 
non,  lay  the  land  of  Moab,  with  its  cities  Kir  of  Moab  and 
Ar  of  Moab  (Isa.  xv.  1) ;  the  former  was  also  called  Kir- 
hareseth.  Isa.  xvi.  7.  The  southern  limit  of  Moab  was  the 
brook  or  valley  of  Jared.  Num.  xxi.  12.  Next  follows  the 
mountainous  district  of  Edom  or  Idumea,  also  called  Mount 
Seir,  which  extends  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea. 


i78  rRLPARING   TO   TEACH. 

Mount  Hor,  where  Aaron  died  (Num.  xx.  23),  is  one  of  its 
most  conspicuous  summits.  Its  ports,  Ezion-geber  and  Elath, 
are  first  mentioned  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus.  Deut.  ii.  8.  In 
the  former  Solomon  built  his  navy  of  ships  for  foreign  trade. 
1  Kings  ix.  2G.  The  latter,  having  been  in  the  possession  of 
Judah  from  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  14) 
till  its  revolt  in  the  reign  of  Joram  (2  Kings  viii.  22),  was 
again  restored  to  Judah  and  fortified  by  Uzziah  (2  Kings  xix. 
22),  though  it  at  a  later  period  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Syr- 
ians. 2  Kings  xvi.  6.  Bozrah,  near  its  northern  border  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  33 ;  Isa.  xxxiv.  6),  and  Sela  (Isa.  xxxiv.  6)  were  its 
principal  cities.  Sela  was  taken  by  King  Amaziah,  and  called 
by  him  Joktheel  (2  Kings  xiv.  7)  ;  at  a  later  time  it  was  the 
residence  of  the  Nabathean  king  Aretas.  2  Cor.  xi.  32.  It 
is  the  same  as  the  Roman  Petra,  from  which  this  portion  of 
Arabia  received  the  name  of  Arabia  Petrsea.  Teman  was 
either  a  town  or  a  district  in  the  south  of  Edom  ;  the  precise 
location  of  Dedan  is  uncertain.  Jer.  xlix.  7,  8.  Mount 
Seir  is  skirted  on  the  west  by  the  valley  which  extends 
southward  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Ked  Sea.  Betw^een  this  and  the  Mediterranean  lies  the 
desolate  region  known  as  the  wilderness  of  Paran  (Gen.  xxL 
21)  ;  its  western  portion,  adjacent  to  the  land  of  Egypt,  was 
also  called  the  wilderness  of  Shur  (Ex.  xv.  22),  or  of  Etham. 
Num.  xxxiii.  8.  This  was  occupied  by  roving  tribes  of 
Amalekites  and  others  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8),  and  was  drained 
by  the  river  of  Egypt  (1  Kings  viii.  65),  which  was  not  the 
Nile,  but  the  modern  wady  «1-Arish,  and  marked  the 
boundary  between  Egypt  and  Palestine. 

Between  the  two  projecting  arms  of  the  Red  Sea  lies  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai,  so  named  from  Mount  Sinai,  near  its 
southern  extremity,  where  the  law  of  God  was  given  to 
Israel  (Ex.  xix.  18),  and  which  was  an  individual  summit 
in  the  mass  of  mountains  collectively  called  Horeb.  Ex. 
iii.  1.     The  adjacent  portion  of  the  desert  was  known  as 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  179 

the  wilderness  or  desert  of  Sinai  (Ex.  xix.  1,  2),  between 
which  and  Etham  lay  the  wilderness  of  Sin.  Ex.  xvi.  1 ; 
Nura,  xxxiii.  11. 

Sheba,  whose  queen  was  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Solomon 
(1  Kings  X.  1),  was  in  Southern  Arabia.  It  has  been  dis- 
puted whether  Ophir,  which  was  so  famous  for  its  gold  (Job 
xxviii.  16),  and  which  was  visited  by  Solomon's  vessels  (1 
Kings  ix.  28),  was  in  Arabia,  Africa  or  India. 

If  we  except  Mesopotamia,  from  which  Abraham  removed 
to  Canaan,  no  Gentile  land  is  more  intimately  associated 
with  the  early  history  of  the  chosen  race  than  Egypt. 
Abraham  went  down  thither  when  there  was  a  famine  in 
Canaan  (Gen.  xii.  10)  ;  so  did  Jacob  and  his  family,  who 
were  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  in  that  part  of  Egypt 
which  was  nearest  Palestine.  On,  w^here  Joseph's  father-in- 
law  was  priest  (Gen.  xli.  45),  was  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt  near 
the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  It  was  called  Beth- 
shemesh  (house  of  the  sun)  by  Jeremiah  (xliii.  13),  and  by 
the  Greeks  Heliopolis  (city  of  the  sun).  Pithom  and 
Raamses  were  treasure-cities  built  by  the  Israelites  for 
Pharaoh.  Ex.  i.  11.  Pi-hahiroth,Migdol  and  Baal-zephon 
(Ex.  xiv.  2)  are  mentioned  in  the  march  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt,  and  lay  near  the  eastern  frontier.  Sin  (Ezek.  xxx. 
15),  or  Pelusium,  which  is  called  by  Ezekiel  the  strength 
of  Egypt,  lay  near  the  eastern  or  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the 
Kile,  and  gave  name  to  the  adjacent  w^ilderness  of  Sin.  Ex. 
xvi.  1.  Tahpanhes,  to  which  the  wretched  remnant  of  Jews 
fled  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  murder  of 
Gedaliah  (Jer.  xliii.  7),  was  upon  the  same  branch  of  the 
Kile.  Pi-beseth  (Ezek,  xxx.  17)  and  Zoan,  which  is  said 
in  Num.  xiii.  22  to  have  been  built  seven  years  after  He- 
bron, were  on  a  canal  connecting  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the 
Nile  with  the  sea.  Alexandria,  the  birthplace  of  A  polios 
(Acts  xviii.  24),  was  the  capital  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptole- 
mies, and  was  founded  by  A  lexander  the  Great,  whose  name 


180  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

it  bears.  Both  the  ship  in  which  Paul  was  wrecked  (Acts 
xxvii.  6)  and  that  in  which  he  sailed  from  Malta  to  Italy 
(xxviii.  11)  were  from  Alexandria.  Memphis,  also  called 
Noph  (Isa.  xix.  13),  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  was  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  pyramids  and  ancient  tombs.  Hos.  ix.  6. 
Hanes  (Isa.  xxx.  4)  is  by  some  placed  a  short  distance  south 
of  Memphis,  and  by  others  identified  with  Tahpanhes,  al- 
ready mentioned.  Pathros  (Ezek.  xxix.  14)  probably  de- 
notes Upper  Egypt,  and  No  (Jer.  xlvi.  25),  or  No-amon 
(English  version,  populous  No,  Nah.  iii.  8),  was  its  cele- 
brated capital,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Thebes.  Syene  was 
on  the  southern  border  of  Egypt,  whence  "  from  Migdol  to 
Syene"  designated  the  land  throughout  its  entire  extent. 
Ezek.  xxix.  10;  xxx.  6  (in  the  margin  of  the  English 
version).  Beyond  Syene  lay  Ethiopia,  which  was  often 
united  with  Egypt  under  the  same  king.  This  was  the 
case  under  Zerah,  who  invaded  Judah  in  the  time  of  King 
Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9),  and  Tirhakah,  the  antagonist  of 
Sennacherib.  2  Kings  xix.  9.  Seba,  though  sometimes  dis- 
tinguished from  Ethiopia  (Isa.  xliii.  3;  xlv.  14),  was  more 
commonly  included  under  it ;  it  denotes  the  so-called  island 
of  Meroe,  beyond  the  rivers  of  Ethiopia  (Isa.  xviii.  1) — that 
is  to  say,  the  tongue  of  land  included  between  the  two  main 
branches  of  the  Nile.  Philip  baptized  a  eunuch  of  Candace, 
queen  of  the  Ethiopians  (Acts  viii.  27,  ff),  as  an  earnest 
and  first  fruits  of  the  promise,  "Ethiopia  shall  soon  stretch 
out  her  hands  unto  God."  Ps.  Ixviii.  31. 

The  entire  north  of  Africa,  west  of  Egypt,  went  by 
the  general  name  of  Libya.  Libyan  troops  are  spoken 
of  in  the  armies  of  Egypt.  Jer.  xlvi.  9.  One  of  its 
principal  cities  was  Cyrene,  from  which  Simon  came, 
who  bare  the  cross  of  Jesus.  Mark  xv.  21.  There  was 
a  synagogue  in  Jerusalem  composed  wholly  or  in  part 
of  Cyrenians.  Acts  vi.  9.  Men  from  this  city  and  its 
neighborhood  were  present  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  181 

ii.  10),  and  were  subsequently  active  in  spreading  the  gos- 
pel, xi.  20. 

North  and  west  from  Palestine  lay  Asia  Minor,  Europe 
and  the  islands' of  the  Mediterranean  and  ^geau  Seas. 

There  are  twelve  divisions  of  Asia  Minor  commonly  recog- 
nized. Three  were  on  its  southern  coast,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia, 
Lycia;  three  on  its  western,  Caria,  Lydia,  Mysia;  three 
on  its  northern,  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Pontus ;  and  three 
in  the  interior,  Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Phrygia.  The  apostle 
Paul  was  born  in  Cilicia,  in  the  city  of  Tarsus.  Acts  xxi. 
39.  Pergn,  in  Pamphylia,  was  the  first  city  in  Asia  Minor 
visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary  jour- 
ney (Acts  xiii.  13);  Attalia,  six  miles  distant  on  the  coast, 
is  the  port  at  which  they  embarked  on  their  return.  Acts 
xiv.  25.  From  Patara,  in  Lycia,  Paul  sailed  for  Phoenicia 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem.  Acts  xxi.  1.  At  Myra,  as  a  pris- 
oner, he  entered  an  Alexandrian  ship  bound  for  Italy. 
Acts  xxvii.  5.  Caria,  Lydia  and  Mysia  constituted  the 
Roman  province  of  Asia,  and  it  is  in  this  limited  sense  that 
the  word  Asia  is  used  in  the  New  Testament — e.  g.,  Acts  ii. 
9;  xvi.  6,  7.  The  seven  churches  in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  4)  accord- 
ingly were  in  this  region,  viz. :  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos, 
Thyaiira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia  and  Laodicea,  though  the 
last  named  was  in  Phrygia,  and  therefore  farther  inland 
than  ihe  rest.  Trogyllium,  mentioned  in  Paul's  last  mis- 
sionary journey  (Acts  xx.  15),  and  Miletus,  where  he  took 
final  leave  of  the  Ephesian  elders  (v.  17),  were  on  the  coast 
of  Lydia.  Troas,  from  which  Paul  first  sailed  into  Mace- 
donia (Acts  xvi.  8),  and  where  he  restored  Eutychus  to  life 
(xx.  19),  was  the  capital  of  Mysia.  When  Paul  proposed 
to  go  into  Bithynia  on  his  second  missionary  journey,  the 
Spirit  suff*ered  him  not  (Acts  xvi.  7),  it  being  the  will  of 
God  that  he  should  pass  on  into  Europe.  The  apostle 
Peter  addressed  his  first  Epistle  to  the  strangers  scattered 

throughout  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia  and  Bithy- 
16 


182  PBEPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

nia.  1  Pet.  i.  1.  Dwellers  in  Cappadocia,  Poutus  and  Asia, 
Phrygia  and  Pamphylia  were  in  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost.  Acts  ii.  9.  Aquila,  with  whom  Paul  abode  at 
Corinth  and  engaged  in  his  occupation  as  a 'tent-maker,  was 
born  in  Pontus.  Acts  xviii.  2.  Galatia,  to  which  the  apostle 
Paul  directed  one  of  his  Epistles,  in  its  widest  sense  included 
Lycaonia  and  Pisidia,  and  consequently  the  cities  of  Antioch 
in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  14) — so  called  in  distinction  from 
Antioch  in  Syria — Iconium  (xiv.  1),  Lystra  and  Derbe 
(v.  6),  visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  in  their  first  mission- 
ary journey.  Colosse,  to  which  one  of  Paul's  Epistles  was 
written,  and  Hierapolis  (Col.  iv.  13)  were  in  Phrygia. 

Macedonia  was  the  first  country  in  Europe  in  which  the 
gospel  was  preached  by  the  apostle  Paul  (Acts  xvi.  10),  he 
having  been  directed  thither  by  a  special  vision.  He 
landed  at  Neapolis  and  proceeded  at  once  to  Philippi,  so 
named  from  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Here  he 
met  Lydia  of  Thyatira,  and  his  imprisonment  led  to  the 
conversion  of  the  jailer  and  his  household.  Acts  xvi.  12,  ff. 
He  likewise  visited  Amphipolis,  Apollonia,  Thessalonica 
and  Berea.  From  Berea  he  hastened  to  Greece,  where  he 
visited  Athens  and  made  his  defence  before  the  court  of  the 
Areopagus  (Acts  xvii.  15);  also  Corinth  (xviii.  1),  the 
chief  city  of  Achaia,  where  he  was  brought  before  tlie 
judgment-seat  of  Gallio,  and  its  seaport  Cenchrea  (v.  18), 
the  residence  of  Phebe.  Rom.  xvi.  1.  He  also  preached 
the  gospel  as  far  as  lUyricum  (Rom.  xv.  19),  w'hich  was  west 
of  Macedonia  and  bordered  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Paul 
speaks  (Titus  iii.  12)  of  having  resolved  to  spend  a  winter 
in  Nicopolis,  probably  the  city  of  that  name  in  Epirus, 
south  of  Illyricum,  though  the  subscription  to  the  Epistle 
(which  is,  however,  of  little  authority)  refers  it  to  a  Nicopo- 
lis  in  Macedonia. 

Between  Illyricum,  on  the  one  side,  and  Italy,  on  the 
other,  lay    the   Adriatic    Sea;    this   name   was   sometimes 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  183 

extended  to  that  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  bounded 
by  Italy  and  Sicily  on  the  west,  Africa  on  the  south,  and 
Greece  and  Crete  on  the  east.  It  is  in  this  wide  sense 
of  the  term  that  Paul  and  his  fellow-passengers  are  said  to 
have  been  driven  up  and  down  in  Adria.  Acts  xxvii.  27. 

In  Italy  mention  is  made  not  only  of  Kome,  but  of 
the  places  through  which  Paul  passed  in  journeying  toward 
it,  viz. :  Rhegium,  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula ; 
Puteoli,  near  Naples,  where  he  landed;  Appii  Forum,  which 
was  thirty-five  miles  from  Rome ;  and  The  Three  Taverns, 
which  was  five  miles  nearer  the  imperial  city. 

The  westernmost  country  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  Spain, 
which  Paul  proposed  to  visit,  though  it  does  not  appear  that 
his  intention  was  ever  carried  into  effect.  Rom.  xv.  24,  28. 
The  Tarshish  of  the  Old  Testament  for  which  Jonah  set 
sail  (Jon.  i.  3),  and  to  which  Solomon  traded,  was  probably 
a  Phoenician  colony  in  the  south  of  Spain. 

The  islands  named  in  the  Bible  are  Cyprus,  the  native 
country  of  Barnabas  (Acts  iv.  36),  and  over  which  Barna- 
bas and  Paul  passed  from  Salamis,  on  its  eastern  coast,  to 
Paphos,  on  its  western ;  Crete,  with  which  many  have  iden- 
tified the  Caphtor  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  which  the 
Philistines  originally  came.  Amos  ix.  7.  Here  Paul  left 
Titus  to  labor.  Tit.  i.  3.  In  Paul's  last  voyage  mention  is 
made  (Acts  xxvii.  7,  8)  of  the  promontory  of  Salmone,  at 
the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  island,  and  of  Lasea,  The 
Fair  Havens  and  Phenice  (v.  12),  on  its  southern  side. 
The  island  Clauda  (v.  16),  a  short  distance  south  of  Crete, 
Rhodes,  Coos  (Acts  xxi.  1),  Patmos,  to  which  the  apostle 
John  was  banished  (Rev.  i.  9),  Samos,  Chios  (Acts  xx.  15), 
Lesbos,  the  capital  of  which  was  Mitylene  (v.  14),  and  Sam- 
othracia  (Acts  xvi.  11)  were  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 
Paul  was  shipwrecked  on  Melita  or  Malta  (Acts  xxviii.  1), 
and  after  leaving  this  island  stopped  at  Syracuse  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  v.  12. 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


LESSOJ^  I, 
FOOD. 


The  archaeology  of  the  Bible  is  an  account  of  the  cus- 
toms and  usages  described  or  referred  to  in  the  sacred 
volume.  So  far  as  these  are  different  from  those  which  pre- 
vail at  the  present  day  or  amongst  ourselves,  a  knowledge 
of  them  is  important  for  the  illustration  of  the  passages  iu 
which  these  references  occur,  being  sometimes  essential  to 
a  right  apprehension  of  their  meaning  and  at  others  adding 
greatly  to  their  force  or  beauty.  Archeology  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  three  parts,  corresponding  to  three 
several  spheres  in  which  human  life  may  be  regarded  as 
moving.  We  may  consider  man  in  a  threefold  aspect,  as  he 
is  a  member  of  the  family  or  of  the  community  or  of  the 
nation.  The  family  has  its  domestic  and  social  usages, 
which  may  therefore  be  held  to  constitute  the  first  branch 
of  archaeology ;  the  second  relates  to  the  various  trades 
and  occupations  practiced  in  the  community;  and  the 
third  embraces  the  civil  and  political  regulations  belonging 
to  the  nation. 

The  full  and  satisfactory  discussion  of  these  several 
themes  would  require  a  volume.  We  find  ourselves  unable 
to  compress  even  the  most  meagre  account  of  them  into  tlie 
few  pages  that  are  allotted  to  tliis  subject  iu  the  plan  of  the 
present  Ueatise.     It  will  only  be  possible  to  present  a  few 

16*  185 


186  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

topics  as  specimens  and  representatives  of  the  whole.  We 
shall  accordingly  make  a  selection  from  the  first  branch  of 
the  general  subject,  or  domestic  and  social  archaeology. 
This  has  its  two  divisions,  viz.,  internal  and  external.  The 
former  relates  to  the  constitution  of  the  family  itself,  and 
concerns — 1.  The  bond  of  marriage,  upon  which  the  family 
is  based.  2.  The  relationship  which  it  creates  of  parents 
and  children,  masters  and  servants.  3.  Its  varied  ex- 
periences of  joy  or  sorrow,  as  connected  with  social  inter- 
course, with  sickness  or  with  death.  The  remaining  divis- 
ion, which  in  contrast  with  the  preceding  has  been  called 
external — and  it  is  to  this  that  our  attention  shall  be  exclu- 
sively directed — is  occupied  with  the  provision  made  in  the 
family  for  the  supply  of  the  outward  physical  necessities 
of  its  members,  viz. :  1.  Food;  2.  Clothing;  3.  Dwellings. 
As  to  the  articles  of  food  in  ordinary  use  among  the 
Hebrews,  and  the  mode  of  their  preparation,  there  is  much 
that  is  obvious  and  common  to  them  with  ourselves.  They 
subsisted  partly,  of  course,  upon  the  products  of  the  soil,  and 
partly  upon  such  animal  food  as  was  accessible.  Bread  was 
with  them,  as  with  us,  the  staff  of  life  (Isa.  iii.  1),  as  is  shown 
by  the  current  phrase  to  "  eat  bread  "  for  partaking  of  food. 
Gen.  iii.  19 ;  xxxi.  54.  It  was  prepared  from  the  various 
cereals,  particularly  wheat  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  16),  which  was  pre- 
ferred, and  which  is  accordingly  commonly  meant  when 
"  corn"  is  spoken  of  in  the  Bible,  as  Gen.  xlii.  1 ;  though 
barley  was  also  used  (Judg.  vii.  13 ;  2  Kings  iv.  42),  and 
in  case  of  necessity  poorer  and  coarser  grains  (Ezek.  iv.  9) 
might  be  employed  which  in  ordinary  times  were  only  fed 
to  cattle.  Grain  might  be  eaten  in  the  ear  in  its  natural 
state,  as  by  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  who  plucked  it  as  they 
walked  through  the  field  (Luke  vi.  1),  or  when  newly  ripe 
it  might  be  parched  or  roasted,  as  by  the  reapers  of  Boaz. 
Kuth  ii.  14.  It  was  mostly,  however,  made  into  cakes  or 
Dread,  and  for  this  purpose  was  first  beaten  fine  in  mortars 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  187 

(Prov.  xxvii.  22)  or  ground  into  flour  (Ex.  xxix.  2)  in 
the  mill.  Num.  xi.  8.  This  latter  was  an  article  of  ordi- 
nary domestic  use,  and  consisted  of  two  millstones,  the 
nether,  which  was  fixed  (Job  xli.  24),  and  the  upper,  which 
was  movable,  and  was  turned  by  women  (Matt.  xxiv.  41) 
or  by  slaves.  Judg.  xvi.  21 ;  Lam.  v.  13.  Two  sat  facing 
each  other,  one  of  whom  grasped  the  handle  and  impelled 
it  halfway  round ;  then  the  other  completed  the  revolution 
In  consequence  of  the  menial  character  of  this  occupation 
the  extremes  of  society  are  indicated  in  Ex.  xi.  5  by  saying 
"  From  Pharaoh  that  sitteth  upon  his  throne  unto  the  maid- 
servant that  is  behind  the  mill."  And  the  prophet  Isaiah 
expressed  the  utmost  degradation  of  the  daughter  of  Babylon 
by  bidding  her  to  take  the  millstones  and  grind  meal.  Isa. 
xlvii.  2.  The  sound  of  the  mill  was  daily  heard  in  every 
house,  so  that  its  ceasing  betokened  desolation  (Jer.  xxv.  10; 
Kev.  xviii.  22),  and  from  its  indispensable  character  it  was 
forbidden  to  take  a  millstone  in  pledge  for  debt.  Deut.  xxiv. 
6.  Larger  mills  were  turned  by  asses ;  and  when  Jesus 
speaks  of  a  millstone  being  hanged  about  a  man's  neck  and 
his  being  drowned  in  the  sea  (Matt,  xviii.  6;  Luke  xvii.  2), 
the  term  used  in  the  original  Greek  shows  that  it  was  one 
of  this  larger  sort  which  was  intended. 

The  flour  thus  prepared  was  baked,  either  leavened  or 
unleavened  (Gen.  xix.  3  ;  Ex.  xii.  39),  in  the  hot  ashes  or  on 
heated  stone  (1  Kings  xix.  6)  or  iron  plates  (Lev.  vii.  9)  or 
in  a  sort  of  ovens.  Hos.  vii.  4-6.  These  last  were  stone  or 
earthen  cylinders  about  three  feet  high,  in  which  fire  was 
made,  and  the  dough  was  spread  upon  their  heated  exterior, 
or  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  in  which  bread  or  cakes,  or, 
thinner  still,  wafers  (Lev.  xxix.  23),  were  baked  on  the  til- 
ing of  the  bottom  or  sides,  after  the  fire  had  been  drawn 
out  and  the  ashes  swept  away.  What  are  called  loaves  of 
bread  were  thin  circular  disks,  which  were  not  cut  but 
broken.  Lam.  iv.  4  ;  Matt.  xiv.  19;  xxvi.  26.     Professionnl 


188  PEEP  A  RING   2\y    TEACH. 

bakers  are  not  only  spoken  of  in  royal  households,  as  that 
of  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xl.  1)  and  Saul  (1  Sam.  viii.  13),  but  there 
were  likewise  public  ovens  (Hos.  vii.  4,  6),  at  least  in  the 
later  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  history  ;  and  from  the 
mention  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21)  of  the  bakers'  street,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  usage  then  prevailed  which  is  still  maintained 
in  Oriental  cities  of  appropriating  whole  bazaars  or  rows  of 
shops  to  certain  trades  or  kinds  of  business. 

Various  vegetables  are  mentioned,  as  lentiles,  of  which 
Jacob  made  pottage  (Gen.  xxv.  34),  cucumbers,  melons, 
leeks,  onions  and  garlic,  which  the  children  of  Israel  had 
eaten  in  Egypt,  and  for  which  they  longed  in  the  desert 
(Num.  xi.  5),  beans  (2  Sam.  xvii.  8),  garden  plants  (1  Kings 
xxi.  2),  and  plants  growing  wild  which  were  gathered  for 
food  (2  Kings  iv.  39  ;  Prov.  xv.  17)  ;  likewise  fruit  of  differ- 
ent kinds  (2  Sam.  xvi.  1 ;  Amos  viii.  2),  particularly  apples 
(Sol.  Song  ii.  5),  pomegranates  (Num.  xx.  5),  grapes  and 
figs  (Matt.  vii.  16),  which  were  not  only  eaten  fresh,  but 
dried  as  raisins,  or  compacted  into  a  solid  mass  as  cakes  of 
pressed  grapes  or  figs.  1  Sam.  xxv.  18.  Grape  cakes  were 
esteemed  very  refreshing  (Cant.  ii.  5),  and  were  distributed 
with  other  provisions  among  the  people  assembled  at  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  to  Zion  (2  Sam.  vi.  19) ;  they  are  also 
mentioned  among  the  delicacies  associated  with  idolatry 
(Hos.  iii.  1)  ;  in  each  of  these  passages  the  English  version 
incorrectly  has  "  bottles  "  or  "  flagons  of  w^ine."  The  word 
•*  dates "  occurs  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  5)  in  the  margin  of  the 
English  Bible,  though  it  is  not  the  proper  rendering  of 
the  original  term  ;  the  palm  tree,  which  is  repeatedly  spoken 
of  in  Scripture  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3;  Ps.  xcii.  12),  however, 
is  the  date-palm,  and  the  use  of  its  fruit,  though  not  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  is  implied.  Cant.  vii.  8,  Sycamore  fruit 
was  gathered  and  eaten  only  by  the  humbler  classes.  Amos 
vii.  14.  Mention  is  also  made  of  almonds  and  other  species 
of  nuts.  Gen.  xliii.  11 ;  Cant.  vi.  11. 


ARCILEOLOGY  OF  HIE  BIBLE.  189 

It  has  been  made  a  question  whether  animal  food  was  in 
use  before  the  flood,  inasmuch  as  it  was  not  explicitly  con- 
tained in  the  grant  made  to  Adam  (Gen.  i.  29),  while  it  was 
in  that  made  to  Noah  and  his  descendants  (Gen.  ix.  3);  though 
the  keeping  of  sheep  and  cattle  (Gen.  iv.  2,  20),  clothing 
made  from  skins  (Gen.  iii.  21)  and  the  distinction  between 
clean  and  unclean  animals  which  was  recognized  prior  to  the 
flood  (Gen.  vii.  2,  8)  seem  to  imply  that  it  was  made  use  of 
from  the  earliest  periods.  In  so  warm  a  climate  as  that  of 
Palestine  it  was  less  necessary  than  in  colder  regions.  And 
the  fact  that  meat  could  be  kept  but  a  short  time,  and  the 
whole  animal  had  consequently  to  be  eaten  soon  after  being 
killed,  added  to  the  expense  and  led  to  its  being  but  spar- 
ingly used,  except  upon  the  tables  of  the  rich  and  great,  as 
of  King  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv.  22,  23)  or  Nehemiah,  the 
Persian  viceroy  (Neh.  v.  18),  or  on  special  occasions  of  hos- 
pitality (Gen.  xviii.  7),  festivity  (Luke  xv.  23)  or  religious 
observance.  Ex.  xii.  8  ;  Deut.  xiv.  26  ;  xv.  19,  20.  The  Jew- 
ish law  forbade  the  eating  of  any  but  clean  animals.  Lev. 
xi.  2,  ff";  Deut.  xiv.  4,  ff".  These  are  among  quadrupeds  those 
which  part  the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud,  as  oxen,  sheep  and 
goats,  together  with  deer  and  some  other  kinds  of  game ; 
among  fish — of  which  they  had  already  learned  to  be  fond 
in  Egypt  (Num.  xi.  5),  and  which  were  supplied  by  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (Matt.  iv.  18),  as  well  as  brought  by  Tyrians  to 
the  markets  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xiii.  16) — such  only  as  have 
fins  and  scales ;  among  birds  all  but  certain  prohibited  species, 
which  were  mostly  birds  of  prey,  or  such  as  fed  in  marshes, 
or  on  worms,  carcasses  or  other  impurities.  Quails,  doves, 
partridges,  sparrows  and  fatted  fowl  (1  Kings  iv.  23),  by  which 
were  probably  meant  geese  or  ducks,  are  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament;  chickens  only  in  the  New.  Luke  xiii.  34; 
xxii.  60.  That  eggs  were  eaten  appears  from  Job  vi.  6 ; 
Isa.  x.  14  ;  Luke  xi.  12.  Among  insects,  the  esculent  locust 
(^Lev.  xi.  22 ;  Matt.  iii.  4)  was  allowed  to  be  eaten,  as  it  still 


190  PREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

is  by  the  poorer  classes  in  Arabia  and  the  East,  by  whom  it 
is  salted  and  cooked,  or  ground  into  flour  and  baked.  The 
sacrificial  system  further  made  it  unlawful  to  eat  blood 
(Lev.  vii.  26,  27 ;  xvii.  10-14)  or  flesh  in  which  the  blood 
remained  (1  Sam.  xiv.  32),  and  by  consequence  animals 
strangled  or  killed  by  wild  beasts  (Ex.  xxii.  31 ;  Lev.  xvii. 
15) ;  also  those  fat  pieces  which  were  customarily  burned 
upon  the  altar.  Lev.  iii.  17  ;  vii.  23-25.  The  sinew  was  also 
extracted  from  the  thigh  for  a  special  reason.  Gen.  xxxii.  32. 

The  care  of  cattle  is  associated  with  the  products  of  the 
dairy.  The  milk  of  cows,  goats  and  sheep  (Deut.  xxxii.  15 ; 
Prov.  xxvii.  27)  was  used  in  its  natural  state  or  made  into 
cheese  (1  Sam.  xvii.  18  ;  Job  x.  10)  or  butter,  the  latter  de- 
noting not  merely  butter  in  the  modern  sense  (Prov.  xxx. 
33),  but  more  commonly  curds,  of  which  the  Orientals  are 
very  fond.  Judg.  v.  25.  Honey  is  often  joined  with  milk  in 
describing  the  fertility  and  abundance  of  Canaan  (Ex.  iii. 
8),  or,  as  in  Isa.  vii.  22,  those  natural  means  of  subsistence 
which  still  remained  when  the  country  was  ravaged  and 
agriculture  suspended.  Besides  the  honey  made  by  bees, 
which  was  often  found  wild  (Deut.  xxxii.  13;  1  Sam.  xiv. 
25  ;  Matt.  iii.  4),  there  was  also  a  honey  artificially  prepared  ; 
at  least  it  is  the  opinion  of  many  scholars  that  this  name 
was  also  applied,  as  by  the  modern  Arabs,  to  a  sweet  syrup 
made  from  grape  juice  or  from  dates.  Gen.  xliii.  11 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxi,  5 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17. 

Oil  and  salt,  though  not  themselves  articles  of  food,  were 
used  in  preparing  and  seasoning  it.  Lev.  ii.  4 ;  Job  vi.  6. 
With  allusion  to  its  preserving  quality,  a  "  covenant  of  salt" 
(Num.  xviii.  19 ;  2  Chron.  xiii.  5)  is  a  perpetual  covenant, 
and  the  disciples  of  Christ  are  called  the  "salt  of  the  earth." 
Matt.  V.  13.  As  it  is  the  opposite  of  both  insipidity  and 
corru})tion,  the  apostle  directs  that  our  speech  should  be 
always  "seasoned  with  salt."  Col.  iv;  6. 

The  drinks  spoken  of  in  addition  to  water  and  milk  are 


ARCHuEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  191 

wine,  strong  drink  (Lev.  x.  9,  prepared  from  barley,  honey 
or  dates,  and  so  called  from  its  intoxicating  properties), 
and  vinegar,  which  was  a  sour  wine.  Num.  vi.  3 ;  Ruth  ii. 
14.  Wine  when  drunk  was  sometimes  weakened  with  water 
(Isa.  i.  22)  in  the  proportion,  as  the  Rabbins  say,  of  three 
])arts  of  water  to  one  of  wine ;  sometimes  it  was  rendered 
more  exciting  by  the  infusion  of  spices.  Prov.  ix.  2,  5  ; 
Cant.  viii.  2.  Hence  an  ambiguity  in  the  expression  "  mixed 
wine."  Thus  the  w^rath  of  God  is  compared  to  wine  "full  of 
mixture"  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8) — i.  e.,  with  its  strength  increased  by 
intensifying  ingredients ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  "  poured  out 
without  mixture"  (Rev.  xiv.  10) — i.  e.,  undiluted.  Wine 
also  became  stronger  by  being  left  upon  its  lees,  when  it  re- 
quired to  be  strained  to  free  it  from  dregs  or  insects.  Isa.  xxv. 
6  ;  Matt,  xxiii.  2-1.  Sour  wine  mingled  with  myrrh  or  other 
bitter  ingredients  was  sometimes  given  to  those  who  were 
executed  to  stupefy  them  and  render  them  insensible  to  suf- 
fering. Prov.  xxxi.  6 ;  Matt,  xxvii.  34,  48. 

The  chief  meal  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  at  noon,  and 
accordingly  Joseph  dined  at  this  hour  (Gen.  xliii.  Jl6);  so 
was  the  principal  repast  throughout  the  Old  Testament, 
Ruth  ii.  14 ;  1  Kings  xx.  16.  But  in  the  New  Testament 
the  Greek  and  Roman  custom  prevailed  of  having  the 
chief  meal  at  night,  and  entertainments  were  generally  sup- 
pers. Mark  vi.  21;  Luke  xiv.  12,  16;  John  xii.  2.  The 
primitive  posture  of  the  Hebrews,  as  of  the  Egyptians,  at 
table  was  sitting.  Thus  Joseph's  brethren  sat  when  they 
ate  with  him  (Gen.  xliii.  33)  ;  Jacob  invited  his  flither  to  "  sit 
and  eat"  (Gen.  xxvii.  19)  ;  the  Levite  and  his  father-in-law 
ill  Bethlehem-iudah  *'  sat  down  and  did  eat  and  drink."  Jud<^ 
xix.  6.  David  sat  at  meat  with  Saul,  and  when  absent  left 
liis  seat  empty  (1  Sam.  xx.  5,  18,  24) ;  the  man  of  God  out 
of  Judah  "  sat  at  the  table  "  in  Bethel.  1  Kings  xiii.  20.  At 
a  later  period  luxurious  livers  adopted  the  fashion  of  reclin- 
ing ;  thu?  Amos  (vi.  4)  says  that  they  "  lie  upon  beds  of 


192  PREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

ivory  and  stretch  themselves  upon  their  couches" — not  for 
sleep,  as  appears  from  what  follows  in  the  very  same  sen- 
tence— "  and  eat  the  lambs  out  of  the  flock  and  calves  OHit  of 
the  stall."  And  the  Persian  origin  of  this  new  fashion  is  dis- 
tinctly intimated  in  the  book  of  Esther  (i.  6),  where  the  ban- 
quet-hall of  Ahasuerus  is  described  as  containing  "  beds"  or 
couches.  In  our  Saviour's  day  the  universal  custom  was  to 
recline  on  couches,  called  in  Greek  triclinia  because  they 
usually  held  three  persons.  The  knowledge  of  this  usage 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  explain  how  John  could  "lean  on 
Jesus'  bosom  "  at  the  table  (John  xiii.  23  ;  xxi.  20)  ;  for  as 
each  person  supported  himself  on  his  left  arm,  he  was 
brought  into  this  relation  to  the  one  who  lay  next  to  him. 
It  also  shows  how  the  woman  who  anointed  him  had  access 
to  his  feet.  Luke  vii.  38.  Modern  Orientals  sit  on  their  heels 
or  with  their  legs  crossed  before  a  waiter  placed  upon  a 
wooden  stool  about  a  foot  high,  or  before  a  round  piece  of 
leather  spread  upon  the  floor  and  provided  with  rings  in  its 
outer  edge,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  together  like  a  bag  and 
hung  up  after  eating.  It  has  been  suggested  that  such  a  table 
might  easily  be  likened  to  a  snare.  Ps.  Ixix.  22  ;  Rom.  xi.  9. 
In  the  absence  of  knives  and  forks,  the  food  was  taken  with 
the  fingers,  which  explains  our  Lord's  expression,  "  He  that 
dippeth  his  hand  with  me  in  the  dish  "  (Matt.  xxvi.  23),  as 
well  as  his  act  of  dipping  the  sop.  John  xiii.  26.  Hence 
the  hands  were  washed  before  and  after  each  meal,  which 
the  Pharisees  erected  into  an  obligatory  religious  ceremony. 
Matt.  XV.  2  ;  Mark  vii.  2,  ff ;  Luke  xi.  38.  Allusions  to  the 
usual  practice  of  asking  a  blessing  or  giving  thanks  before 
eating  occur  in  tlie  case  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  ix.  13),  and  re- 
peatedly in  the  history  of  our  Lord.  Matt.  xiv.  19. 

When  entertainments  were  given,  invited  guests  were  noti- 
fied by  servants  at  the  proper  hour  (Pro v.  ix.  3  ;  Matt.  xxii.  3, 
4)  ;  they  were  welcomed  with  a  kiss  upon  their  arrival  (Luke 
vii.  45),  their  feet  were  washed  (Gen.  xviii.  4 ;  Luke  vii.  44), 


ARCHuilOLOU  ±    OF  THE  BIBLE.  193 

their  hair  and  beard  auointed  i  Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  Amos  vi.  6  ;  Luke 
vii.  46),  and  places  were  assigned  them  at  the  table  according 
to  their  rank.  Gen.  xliii.  33  ;  1  Sam.  ix.  22 ;  Luke  xiv.  8,  ff. 
As  a  mark  of  special  honor  choice  pieces  were  sent  them 
by  the  host  (1  Sam.  ix.  24),  sometimes  double  the  ordinary- 
quantity  (1  Sam.  i.  5),  or  even  more.  Gen.  xliii.  34.  As  an 
illustration  of  the  modes  of  diversion  sometimes  resorted 
to  on  such  occasions  may  be  mentioned  the  riddle  pro- 
pounded at  Samson's  wedding.  Judg.  xiv.  12.  Excess  of 
revelry  and  riotous  festivity  were  rebuked  by  the  prophets. 
Isa.  V.  11,  12;  Amos  vi.  4-6.  Li  the  Greek  and  Roman 
period  the  appliances  of  luxury  had  greatly  increased,  and 
musicians  and  dancing-women  were  introduced  to  amuse  or 
charm  the  guests.  Matt.  xiv.  6 ;  Luke  xv.  25.  Christians  are 
repeatedly  warned  against  all  improper  indulgence.  Rom. 
xiii.  13;  Gal.  v.  21 ;  1  Pet.  iv.  3.  Women  and  children 
were  present  at  social  entertainments  (1  Sam.  i,  4;  John 
xii.  3 ),  and  at  sacrificial  meals  men-servants  and  maid-ser- 
vants, Levites,  strangers,  the  fatherless  and  widows  w^ere  in- 
vited. Dent.  XV  i.  11,  14.  Eating  together  was  a  pledge  of 
friendship,  and  established  a  claim  to  protection.  Josh.  ix. 
14;  Ps.  xli.  9;  John  xiii.  18. 


LESSOjy  IT. 
CLOTHING. 


Our  first   parents  sewed   fig   leaves   for   their   covering 

(Gen.  iii.  7),  and  the  Lord  made  them   coats  of  skins,  ver. 

2*1.     The  materials  for  clothing  subsequently  mentioned  in 

the  Bible  are  wool,  linen,  cotton,  silk  and  the  hair  of  goats 

and  camels.     The  use  of  wool  for  this  purpose  even  in  the 

most   ancient    times  is   implied    in   Abel'?    keeping   sheep 
17 


194  PREPAEIi^'G   TO   TEACH. 

(Gen.  iv.  2),  which  was  no  doubt  for  the  sake  of  their  fleece 
as  \Yell  as  of  their  flesh,  and  especially  in  the  shearing  of 
sheep,  which  is  expressly  mentioned  in  the  case  of  Laban 
<  Gen.  xxxi.  19),  and  of  Judah.  Gen.  xxxviii.  12.  Job 
ch^thed  the  poor  with  the  fleece  of  his  sheep  (Job  xxxi.  20), 
and  Moses  speaks  of  woolen  garments  as  in  common  use. 
Lev.  xiii.  47.  The  cultivation  of  flax  is  first  alluded  to 
during  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  31),  where  it  was  a 
staple  article  of  trade  and  manufacture  from  a  very  early 
period.  Its  use  among  the  Hebrews  is  shown  in  the  direc- 
tion that  the  priests'  garments  sliould  be  of  linen.  Lev.  xvi. 
4.  The  "fine  linen"  of  the  Bible,  such  as  that  with  which 
Joseph  was  arrayed  (Gen,  xli.  42),  and  which  was  used  in 
the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  4;  xxvi.  1), 
and  which  the  rich  man  in  the  parable  is  represented  as  wear- 
ing (Luke  xvi.  19),  was  the  ancient  byssus,  which  has  been 
supposed  to  have  been  in  most  cases  a  cotton  fabric,  thougli 
recent  microscopic  investigations  of  mummy  wrappings  have 
shown  that  they  at  least  exhibit  the  cylindrical  fibre  of  flax, 
and  not  the  flat  fibre  of  cotton.  This  byssus  is  improperly 
translated  ''silk"  in  Prov.  xxxi.  22,  and  in  the  margin  in  a 
couple  of  other  passages.  Silk  does  occur,  however,  at  a 
later  period  (Ezek.  xvi.  10,  13;  Rev.  xviii.  12),  as  an  ele- 
gant and  costly  material.  Goats'  hair  was  spun  for  the  sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xxvi.  7  ;  xxxv.  26),  as  well  as  made  into  sackcloth 
(Rev.  vi.  12)  ;  and  John  the  Baptist  had  his  raiment  of  cam- 
els' hair.  Matt.  iii.  4.  The  mingling  of  diflferent  materials, 
as  of  linen  and  woolen,  in  the  same  piece  was  prohibited 
(Lev.  xix.  19;  Deut.  xxii.  H),  like  all  other  heterogeneous 
mixtures,  from  a  religious  point  of  view,  as  a  confusing  of 
what  God  had  made  distinct.  Clothes  were  commonly  made 
by  the  women,  as  by  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii.  19)  and  Dorcas 
(Acts  ix.  39),  and  even,  as  in  classic  lands,  by  ladies  of  rank 
and  wealth.  Prov.  xxxi,  22. 

There  were  two  striking  points  of  diflference  between  the 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  195 

Oriental  dress  and  that  which  is  in  use  among  ourselves. 
The  first  is  its  loose  and  flowing  character  as  distinguished 
from  our  tightly-fitting  dress,  so  that  the  same  suit  of  clothes 
would  answer  for  one  person  as  well  as  another.  The 
second  is  the  permanence  and  uniformity  of  Eastern  fashions 
as  compared  with  ours,  so  that  the  best  illustration  of  the 
apparel  in  use  in  the  days  of  Abraham  is  in  some  respects 
furnished  by  that  worn  by  the  Arabs  at  the  present  time. 
It  hence  resulted  that  clothing  became  an  important  element 
of  wealth,  as  its  value  was  not  impaired  by  frequent  changes 
nor  by  want  of  adaptation  to  any  who  might  wish  to  wear 
it.  The  accumulation  of  clothing  is  accordingly  spoken  of 
along  with  that  of  the  precious  metals  as  indicating  riches 
Ex.  xii.  35 ;  Josh.  xxii.  8 ;  2  Chron.  ix.  24 ;  Zech.  xiv.  14 ; 
Acts  XX.  33.  Thus  Job  (xxvii.  16)  combines  heaping  up 
silver  as  dust  and  preparing  raiment  as  the  clay.  A  man 
of  property  in  a  time  of  general  impoverishment  is  described 
as  one  who  has  clothing.  Isa.  iii.  6.  The  apostle  James 
(v.  2)  denounces  woe  upon  the  rich  by  saying,  "  Your  riches 
are  corrupted  and  your  garments  are  moth-eaten."  And 
our  Lord  exhorts  his  disciples  (Matt.  vi.  19),  "  Lay  not  up 
for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth,  where  moth  and  rust 
doth  corrupt."  Comp.  Josh.  vii.  21 ;  2  Kings  vii.  8.  Hence 
we  find  a  "keeper  of  the  wardrobe"  among  the  oflScials  of 
the  royal  household  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22) ;  and  the  house 
of  Baal  contained  vestments  enough  for  all  his  worshipers. 
2  Kings  X.  22.  Guests  at  a  royal  festival  were  supplied 
with  garments  for  the  occasion,  which  accounts  for  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  king  at  seeing  one  present  at  the  marriage 
of  his  son  who  had  not  on  a  wedding-garment.  Matt.  xxii. 
12.  On  the  return  of  the  prodigal  the  servants  were 
directed  to  bring  forth  the  best  robe  and  put  it  on  him. 
Luke  XV.  22.  This  explains  also  the  frequent  mention  of 
changes  of  raiment  or  presents  of  clothing  as  of  peculiar 
value.     Thus  the  thirty  clianges  of  garments  paid  by  Sam- 


196  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

son  tc  the  Philistines  (Judg.  xiv.  12),  the  ten  changes  of 
raiment  sent  by  the  king  of  Syria  to  the  king  of  Israel 
(2  Kings  V.  5),  the  presents  of  clothing  given  by  Joseph 
to  his  brethren  (Gen.  xlv.  22),  by  Jonathan  to  David  (1 
Sam.  xviii.  4),  by  Esther  to  Mordecai.  Esth.  iv.  4. 

The  essential  articles  of  dress,  as  in  ancient  Greece  and 
in  the  modern  East,  were  two,  viz. :  the  undergarment, 
which  was  put  on  and  worn  next  the  body,  and  the  upper 
or  outer  garment,  which  was  loosely  thrown  over  it.  These 
belonged  alike  to  both  sexes,  though  with  such  a  discrimi- 
nation in  style  or  in  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  with 
such  additional  articles  belonging  exclusively  to  one  sex 
or  to  the  other,  that  the  dress  of  men  was  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  that  of  women,  as  is  implied  in  the  pro- 
hibition in  the  law  that  neither  sex  should  wear  the  garments 
of  the  other  (Deut.  xxii.  5),  a  prohibition  based  not  only 
on  decorum,  but  possibly  also,  as  has  been  conjectured,  on 
oj)position  to  certain  practices  in  heathen  worship  in  which 
such  interchange  was  customary. 

The  undergarment  (commonly  called  "coat"*  in  the 
English  version)  was  a  narrow  tunic  or  gown,  mostly 
woolen,  though  those  of  the  priests  were  linen  (Lev.  xvi.  4), 
and  worn  alike  by  young  and  old  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3 ;  2  Sam. 
XV.  32),  and  by  persons  of  either  sex.  Cant.  v.  3.  It  com- 
monly had  short  sleeves,  reached  nearly  to  the  knees,  and 
was  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  belt  or  girdle.  As  worn  by 
persons  of  superior  rank,  and  particularly  ladies,  it  some- 
times had  long  sleeves  and  extended  to  the  ankles;  such 
was  probably  the  coat  with  which  Joseph  was  honored 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  3),  and  the  garment  of  King  David's  daugh- 
ter Tamar  (2  Sam.  xiii.  18),  improperly  rendered  by  our 

*  But  "garment"  in  2  Sam.  xiii.  38,  19  ;  Ezra  ii.  69  ;  Neh.  vii.  70, 
72;  Jude  ver.  23,  "robe"  in  Isa.  xxii.  21,  and  "clothes"  in  Mark 
xiv.  63;  "coat"  in  1  Sam.  ii,  19  represents  a  different  word,  and  in 
Dan.  iii.  21,  27,  another  still. 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  197 

translators  "  of  many "  or  "  clivers  colors."  A  person 
who  had  nothing  on  but  tliis  undergarment  unbelted  was 
called  naked  ;  so  Saul  among  the  prophets,  when  he  had 
thrown  off  his  upper  garment  (Eng.  Ver.  clothes)  (1  Sam. 
xix.  24),  and  Isaiah  when  he  had  loosened  or  thrown  off  his 
dress  of  sackcloth  (Isa.  xx.  2),  and  Peter  when  his  fisher's 
coat  was  ungirt.  John  xxi.  7.  While  that  which  has  now 
been  described  was  the  only  undergarment  considered  indis- 
pensable and  universally  worn,  two  others  are  also  spoken 
of  that  were  finer  and  more  costly,  and  belonged  chiefly  to 
the  rich.  A  shirt  was  sometimes  worn  under  the  tunic 
(Judg.  xiv.  12,  marg.),  which  is  in  Isa.  iii.  23  ;  Pro  v.  xxxi. 
24  rendered  "  fine  linen,"  this  being  the  material  of  which  it 
was  made.  There  was  also  a  "  robe  "  or  "  mantle,"*  as  it  is 
usually  translated  in  our  version,  which  was  without  sleeves 
and  larger  than  the  tunic  over  which  it  was  worn.  This 
formed  part  of  the  official  dress  of  the  high  priest  (Lev. 
viii.  7),  and  was  worn  by  Samuel  in  his  childhood  (1  Sam. 
ii.  9)  as  the  attendant  upon  Eli,  as  well  as  in  his  later  years 
when  he  was  invested  with  high  authority  in  both  civil  and 
religious  matters.  1  Sam.  xv.  27 ;  xxviii.  14.  So,  too,  by 
Ezra  the  priest.  Ezra  ix.  3,  5.  It  was  also  worn  by  kings 
(Ezek.  xxvi.  16),  as  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  4)  and  David 
(1  Chron.  XV.  27),  and  by  members  of  the  royal  family, 
as  Jonathan  (1  Sam.  xviii.  4),  and  king's  daughters 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  18),  and  by  nobles  or  men  of  distinction, 
as  by  Job  (i.  20;  xxix.  14)  and  his  three  friends,  ii. 
12.  Hence  the  high-priest  (Mark  xiv.  63)  is  said  to 
have  rent  his  tunics — i.  e.,  both  his  robe  and  his  tunic 
proper.  To  this  custom  of  the  wealthy  of  wearing  two 
undergarments  John  the  Baptist  has  been  supposed  to  al- 
lude as  to  a  needless  extravagance  in  saying  to  the  people 
(Luke  iii.  11)  :  "  He  that  hath  two  coats,  let  him  impart  to 
him  that  hath  none,"  and  our  Lord  in  directing  his  disci- 

*  But  "coat"  (1  Sam  ii.  19),  and  "doak."  Isa.  Ux.  17. 
17* 


198  PBEPABI2SG   TO   TEACH. 

pies  when  he  sent  them  forth  not  to  put  on  two  coats. 
Mark  vi.  9. 

The  upper  garment  (in  the  English  Version  commonly 
"  garment,"  "  raiment "  or  "  clothes  "*)  was  a  sort  of  shawl, 
or  a  large  square  piece  of  cloth,  which  was  wrapped  round 
the  person.  It  was  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder  and 
brought  round  over  or  under  the  right  arm,  and  fastened 
either  in  front  or  at  the  right  side,  the  pendent  ends  being 
called  "  skirts."  Hag.  ii.  12 ;  Zech.  viii.  23.  A  fringe  or 
tassels  were  attached  to  the  four  corners  by  a  blue  cord 
(Num.  XV.  38,  39 ;  Deut.  xxii.  12)  to  remind  the  wearer  of 
the  law  and  its  heavenly  origin.  These  are  the  "  borders 
of  their  garments  "  which  were  enlarged  by  the  Pharisees 
(Matt,  xxiii.  5),  and  possibly  also  the  hem  or  border  of 
Christ's  garment  touched  by  the  woman  who  was  healed. 
Matt.  ix.  20 ;  Luke  viii.  44.  These  upper  garments  were 
used  as  a  spread  upon  their  couches  at  night,  in  consequence 
of  which  they  were  not  to  be  taken  in  pledge  for  debt.  Ex. 
xxii.  26,  27  ;  Deut.  xxiv.  12,  13 ;  Amos  ii.  8.  To  this  our 
Lord  alludes  (Matt.  v.  40)  :  "  If  any  man  will  sue  thee  at 
the  law,  and  take  away  thy  coat,"  or  undergarment,  which 
he  might  legally  do,  "  let  him  have  thy  cloak  also,"  the  up- 
per garment,  to  which  he  was  not  entitled.  The  inactive  found 
in  the  ample  folds  of  this  dress  a  convenient  resting-place 
for  the  hands.  Hence  the  Psalmist,  entreating  God's  active 
interposition,  beseeches  him  to  pluck  his  right  hand  out  of 
bis  bosom.  Ps.  Ixxiv.  ll.f     They  might  also  be  used  as  a 

*  Also  "  robe"  (2  Chron.  xviii.  9,  29;  Mic.  ii.  8;  Jon.  iii.  6;  John 
xix.  2,  5),  and  "cloak."  Matt.  v.  40;  Luke  vi.  29. 

t  In  Prov.  xix.  24 ;  xxvi.  15,  the  word  rendered  "bosom  "  proper- 
ly means  "  dish,"  as  it  is  correctly  translated  2  Kings  xxi.  13.  The 
man  is  too  lazy  to  lift  his  hand  to  his  mouth  from  the  common  dish, 
out  of  which  each  took  his  portion  with  his  fingers,  according  to 
Oriental  usage. 


archjEology  of  the  bible.  199 

pocket.*  Thus  Haggai  speaks  (ii.  12)  of  carrying  holy 
flesh  in  the  skirt  of  the  garment,  and  our  Lord  of  good 
measure  being  given  into  one's  bosom.  Luke  vi.  38 ;  com- 
pare Ps.  Ixxix.  12.  Or  the  garment  might  be  taken  off  and 
spread  out  to  receive  whatever  might  be  wrapped  in  it,  and 
then  carried  like  a  bag  on  the  shoulders,  as  the  kneading- 
troughs  at  the  exodus  (Ex.  xii.  34),  the  earrings  taken  from 
the  Ishmaelites  (Judg.  viii.  25),  the  barley  given  to  Ruth 
(iii.  15),  where  "  veil "  should  be  "  upper  garment,"  'the 
wild  gourds  gathered  for  pottage.  2  Kings  iv.  39 ;  compare 
Prov.  XXX.  4.  It  was  the  upper  garment  that  Ahijah 
snatched  from  Jeroboam  and  rent  into  twelve  pieces  (1 
Kings  xi.  30),  that  the  adherents  of  Jehu  laid  beneath  him 
on  the  stairs  (2  Kings  ix.  13),  that  were  put  upon  the  ass 
on  which  Jesus  rode  and  spread  in  the  way  before  him. 
Matt.  xxi.  8.  The  looseness  of  the  upper  garment  im- 
peded action  ;  hence  Bartimeus  cast  it  away  in  his  haste  to 
go  to  Jesus  (Mark  x.  50),  the  workman  going  to  the  field 
left  it  behind  him  (Matt.  xxiv.  18),  Jesus  laid  it  aside  to 
wash  his  disciples'  feet  (John  xiii.  4),  resuming  it  when  he 
had  finished  (ver.  12),  the  witnesses  who  took  part  in  ston- 
ing Stephen  laid  it  down  at  the  feet  of  Saul  (Acts  vii.  58), 
and  the  mob  incensed  at  Paul  cast  it  off  as  they  threw  dust 
into  the  air.  Acts  xxii.  23. 

The  upper  and  under  garment  are  sometimes  spoken  of 
together  in  the  same  passage.  Thus  at  the  crucifixion  of 
Jesus  the  soldiers  divided  his  upper  garment  into  four  parts 
and  parcelled  it  among  them,  but  cast  lots  for  the  coat,  or  un- 
dergarment, which  was  without  seam,  woven  from  the  top 
throughout.  John  xix.  23,  24.  Peter  was  shown  the  coats 
(or  tunics)  and  (upper)  garments  which  Dorcas  had  made 

*  In  Prov.  xvii.  23,  "A  gift  out  of  the  bosom,"  and  xxi.  14,  "a 
reward  in  the  bosom,"  may  be  one  taken  from  or  received  into  the 
pocket  of  the  dress;  or  "  bosom"  may  denote  the  privicy  of  a  man'a 
thonghts,  and  the  expression  mean  a  secret  bribe. 


200  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

(Acts  ix.  39)  ;  Ezra  (ix.  3,  5)  rent  his  (upper)  garment  and 
his  mantle,  or  the  undergarment  worn  over  the  tunic  as  his 
robe  of  office. 

A  peculiar  sort  of  upper  garment  to  which  the  Hebrews 
gave  a  special  name  is  in  our  version  rendered  four  times 
garment  (Gen.  xxv.  25  ;  Josh.  vii.  21,  24 ;  Zech.  xiii.  4), 
five  times  mantle  (1  Kings  xix.  13,  19;  2  Kings  ii.  8,  13, 
14)  and  twice  robe.  Jon.  iii.  6 ;  Mic.  ii.  8.  It  appears  to 
have  been  made  of  skin,  with  the  hair  or  fur  retained.  Gen. 
xxv.  25  ;  compare  Heb.  xi.  37.  Such  was  the  garment  of  the 
prophets  (Zech.  xiii.  4),  the  mantle  of  Elijah  (1  Kings  xix. 
13),  and  the  robe  of  ordinary  people  (Mic.  ii.  8),  which 
doubtless  were  plain  and  unpretending.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, they  were  elegant  and  costly,  as  that  imported  from 
Babylon  and  coveted  by  Achan  (Josh.  vii.  21),  and  that 
worn  by  the  king  of  Nineveh.  Jon.  iii.  6. 

Breeches  or  drawers  Avere  worn  by  the  priests  (Ex. 
xxviii.  42),  but  not  generally  by  others.  Some  authorities 
explain  the  word  rendered  "  coats''  in  the  dress  of  the  three 
men  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  iii.  21)  as  meaning 
trowsers.  Others,  with  greater  probability,  think  it  to  de- 
note mantles,  as  it  is  in  the  margin. 

The  girdle  was  an  important  part  of  the  Eastern  dress. 
It  was  used  to  confine  the  loose  undergarment,  which  would 
otherwise  impede  motion.  Hence  Elijah  girded  up  his 
loins  when  he  ran  before  Ahab  (1  Kings  xviii.  46),  and  Da- 
vid when  he  danced  before  the  Lord  (2  Sam.  vi.  14),  Ge- 
hazi  (2  Kings  iv.  29)  and  the  son  of  the  prophets  (2  Kings 
ix.  1),  when  sent  upon  an  errand  by  Elisha,  and  our  Lord 
when  he  washed  his  disciples'  feet.  John  xiii.  4.  To  have  the 
loins  girded  is  a  figure  consequently  for  vigor  (Ps.  xviii.  32) 
and  readiness  for  action.  Luke  xii.  35.  The  soldier  wore  his 
dagger  (Judg.  iii.  16)  or  sword  (1  Sam.  xxv.  13;  2  Sam.  xx. 
8  ;  Ps.  xlv.  13)  in  his  girdle  or  belt,  which  was  accordingly  a 
necessary  part  of  his  equipment  (Isa.  v.  27 ;  Eph.  vi.  14),  and 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  201 

to  gird  himself  was  to  prepare  for  battle.  1  Kings  xx.  11 ;  Isa. 
viii.  9.  Money  was  also  carried  in  the  belt  (Matt.x.  9  ;  Mark 
vi.  8),  where  the  word  translated  purse  is  properly  girdle. 
The  girdle  was  made  of  leather  (2  Kings  i.  8 ;  Matt.  iii.  4),  of 
linen  (Jer.  xiii.  1),  and  fine  linen  or  byssus.  Ezek.  xvi.  10. 
It  was  sometimes  very  elaborately  wrought  or  richly  deco- 
rated with  gold  and  precious  stones  (compare  Dan.  x.  5  ; 
Rev.  i.  13),  and  was  highly  prized  as  an  article  of  female 
adornment  (Isa.  iii.  24;  xlix.  18;  Jer.  ii.  32,  where  the 
word  rendered  "attire"  means  properly  "girdle"),  and 
given  as  a  present  (1  Sam.  xviii.  4;  2  Sam.  xviii.  11)  or 
made  an  article  of  trade.  Prov.  xxxi.  24.  It  was  also 
reckoned  among  the  insignia  of  office.  Isa.  xxii.  21. 

It  remains  to  consider  what  was  worn  on  the  feet  and  on 
the  head.  Their  shoes  were  simply  sandals  of  wood  or 
leather  fastened  on  by  straps  or  thongs  (Gen.  xiv.  23 ;  Isa. 
v.  27),  and  put  off  on  entering  a  room  or  going  into  a 
sacred  place  (Ex.  iii.  5 ;  Josh.  v.  15),  though  worn  at  the 
passover  (Ex.  xii.  11),  which  was  eaten  as  if  in  readiness 
for  a  journey.  Shoes  were  commonly  of  a  paltry  price 
(Amos  ii.  6;  viii.  6),  but  those  of  ladies  were  often  ele- 
gant (Cant.  vii.  1)  and  of  costly  material.  Ezek.  xvi.  10. 
In  business  transactions  drawing  off  the  shoe  and  giving  it 
to  another  was  the  sign  of  the  transfe'r  of  property  upon 
which  it  had  trodden.  Deut.  xxv.  9,  10  ;  Ruth  iv.  7 ;  com- 
pare Josh.  i.  3.  The  sandals  of  the  wealthy  were  put  on, 
taken  off  and  carried  by  slaves.  This  is  hence  spoken  of  as 
a  menial  service.  Matt.  iii.  11 ;  Mark  i.  7. 

Turbans  were  worn  by  both  sexes  (Job  xxix.  14 ;  Isa.  iii. 
20;  Ezek.  xxiii.  15),  especially  by  the  rich  and  noble,  and 
on  festive  occasions  (Ezek.  xxiv.  17  ;  Isa.  Ixi.  3,  where 
"beauty,"  and  ver.  10,  where  "ornaments,"  properly  denote 
a  head-dress).  But  it  seems  likely  that  people  commonly 
went  without  any  covering  on  their  heads  other  than  per- 
haps a  simple  band  to  confine  the  hair.     When  the  angel 


202  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

summonei  Pet3r  to  leave  the  prison  (Acts  xii.  8),  he  bade 
him  gird  himself,  bind  on  his  sandals  and  cast  his  upper 
garment  about  him,  but  said  nothing  about  putting  any- 
thing on  his  head.  Mourners  went  barefoot,  and  with  their 
head  covered  by  their  dress.  2  Sam.  xv.  30. 

The  veil  was  regarded  as  indispensable  to  well-bred 
ladies  (Gen.  xxiv.  65 ;  Cant.  v.  7),  though  in  patriarchal 
times  there  seems  to  have  been  more  freedom  in  this  respect 
than  subsequently.  Gen.  xii.  14 ;  xxiv.  15 ;  xxvi.  8.  Of 
female  ornaments  a  list  is  given  (Isa.  iii.  18-24),  some  partic- 
ulars of  which  are  now  obscure.  The  principal  of  them  are 
necklaces,  bracelets,  rings — not  only  on  the  fingers  and  in 
the  ears,  but  in  the  nose — mirrors  of  polished  metal  worn 
upon  the  person,  and  gold  or  silver  chains  connecting  the 
metallic  plates  upon  the  ankles,  so  as  to  regulate  the  step 
and  at  the  same  time  to  produce  a  tinkling  sound.  Men 
carried  a  cane  or  staff,  and  a  seal-ring  either  upon  the  fin- 
ger or  on  a  cord  suspended  from  the  neck  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
18) ;  and  both  Joseph  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xii.  42)  and  Daniel 
in  Babylon  (Dan.  v.  29)  were  honored  by  putting  a  gold  chain 
about  their  necks. 

Two  foreign  articles  of  dress  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  scarlet  robe  put  on  the  Saviour  in  mockery 
(Matt,  xxvii.  28)  was  the  mantle  worn  by  Roman  generals 
and  officers,  and  even  by  emperors  at  a  later  time.  The 
cloak  of  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  13)  was  worn  by  both  sexes  over 
the  tunic.  It  had  no  sleeves,  merely  an  opening  for  the 
head,  and  a  hood  which  could  be  drswn  over  the  head  in 
cold  or  wet  weather. 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  203 


LESSOJV  III. 

DWELLINGS. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  in  the  earliest  ages  men  con- 
tented themselves  with  the  rudest  possible  habitations,  seek- 
ing shelter  in  natural  caverns,  which  they  afterward  im- 
proved by  art,  or  in  booths  and  sheds  slightly  constructed 
from  boughs  of  trees,  until  they  gradually  learned  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  better  and  more  suitable  abodes. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  theory,  it  derives 
no  support  from  the  facts  recorded  in  the  Bible,  which 
speaks  of  a  city  as  already  built  by  Cain  (Gen.  iv.[7), 
implying,  of  course,  houses  and  permanent  dwellings.  A 
more  rational  and  better  accredited  opinion  regards  the 
different  styles  of  habitation  as  contemporaneous  rather 
than  successive,  and  seeks  the  ground  of  their  diversity  in 
the  various  grades  of  civilization  in  which  men  are  found, 
the  nature  of  their  occupation  and  the  materials  within 
their  reach. 

The  Horites,  or  primitive  inhabitants  of  Mount  Seir 
(Gen.xiv.  6  ;  Deut.  ii.  12),  are  thought  to  have  derived  their 
name  from  their  living  in  the  caves  with  which  that  region 
abounds,  and  which,  in  later  times,  were  fashioned  into  the 
elegant  rock-hewn  structures  of  the  city  of  Petra.  And 
Job  (xxx.  6)  speaks  of  miserable  vagabonds  dwelling  in 
caves.  The  numerous  and  spacious  caverns  of  Palestine  are 
often  spoken  of  as  affording  concealment  and  refuge.  Thus 
Lot  and  his  daughters  took  up  their  abode  in  a  cave  after 
the  destruction  of  Sodom.  Gen.  xix.  30.  Five  kings  of  the 
Amorites,  fleeing  before  Joshua,  hid  themselves  in  the  cave 
at  Makkedah.  Josh.  x.  16.  Israel,  oppressed  by  Midian 
( Judg.  vi.  2)  and  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xiii.  6),  Sam- 
Bon,  beset  by  foes  (Judg.  xv.  8),  David,  pursued  by  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  1 ;  xxiv.  3),  prophets   persecuted  by  Ahab  (1 


204  PREPARrXG    TO   TEACH. 

Kings  xviii.  4),  and  g3dly  men  in  other  periods  o.  persecu- 
tion (Heb.  xi.  38),  sought  concealment  in  caves.  They  were 
also  resorted  to  by  lawless  or  distressed  classes  (1  Sam.xxii. 
2)  to  escape  the  restraints  or  burdens  of  society;  but  they 
were  not  used  as  places  of  permanent  abode  until  they  were 
occupied  for  this  purpose  by  the  hermits  of  a  later  period. 
Tradition  indicates  certain  grottoes  as  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  nativity  (Luke  ii.  7),  and  of  various  other  events  of 
the  sacred  history,  but,  so  far  as  appears,  without  any  good 
foundation. 

Booths  are  only  spoken  of  as  constructed  for  cattle  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  17),  or  to  afford  temporary  shelter  in  case  of  need, 
as  in  the  case  of  Jonah  before  Nineveh  (Jon.  iv.  5),  of  gar- 
deners and  husbandmen  (Job  xxvii.  18  ;  Isa.  i.  8),  and  of 
the  entire  people  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  Lev.  xxiii.  42. 

Nomad  tribes  dwelt  in  tents,  which  could  easily  be  trans- 
ported from  place  to  place.  Judg.  vi.  5  ;  Isa.  xiii.  20 ;  Hab. 
iii.  7.  So  did  soldiers  under  arms  (2  Kings  vii.  7)  and 
shepherds  whose  care  of  flocks  obliged  them  to  lead  a  rov- 
ing life.  Isa.  xxxviii.  12.  Jabal,  the  son  of  Lamech  (Gen. 
iv.  20),  is  said  to  have  been  the  "father  of  such  as  dwell  in 
tents  and  have  cattle."  The  patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac 
and  Jacob  lived  in  tents  in  Canaan  as  pilgrims  and  shep- 
herds (Gen.  xviii.  1 ;  xxvi.  17 ;  xxxiii.  18),  though  their 
ancestors  and  relatives  in  Mesopotamia  had  houses  and  set- 
tled abodes.  Gen.  xxiv.  10,  23.  Tents  were  sometimes 
covered  with  skins  or  mats,  but  mostly  with  cloths,  or,  a» 
they  are  called,  curtains,  woven  from  wool  or  from  goats' 
hair.  Ex.  xxvi,  7,  14.  Those  of  goats'  hair  were  black. 
Cant.  i.  5;  iv.  1.  These  cloths  were  stretched  over  one  or 
more  upright  poles  and  fastened  to  the  ground  by  cords  and 
pins.  Ex.  xxxv.  18 ;  Judg.  iv.  21  ;  Jer.  x.  20.  Tents, 
whether  round  )r  oblong,  were  divided  by  hangings  into  two, 
or  those  of  the  better  class  into  three,  apartments,  one  for 
the  women  and  children,  one  for  the  men  and  one  for  ser- 


AROHJEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  205 

vants  or  cattle.  Wealthy  families  had  separate  tents  for 
women.  Gen.  xxiv.  67 ;  xxxi.  33.  The  towns  and  castles 
of  the  sons  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  16)  and  the  villages  of 
Kedar  (Isa.  xlii.  11)  were  collections  of  tents  or  nomadic 
encampments. 

Houses  were  sometimes  built  of  brick,  either  burned,  as  at 
Babel  (Gen.  xi.  4),  or  simply  dried  in  the  sun,  as  those  made 
by  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  in  which  straw  was  min- 
gled with  the  clay.  Ex.  v.  7.  The  use  of  the  latter  explains 
the  fact  that  it  was  possible  to  dig  through  a  wall  (Ezek. 
xii.  5,  7),  and  that  a  house  neglected  and  exposed  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather  would  be  reduced  to  a  heap  of 
dirt.  Dan.  iii.  29.  Stone  was,  however,  regarded  as  the 
nobler  and  better  material  (Isa.  ix.  10),  the  use  of  which  is 
presupposed  in  the  narrative  of  the  tower  of  Babel  (Gen. 
xi.  3),  as  well  as  in  the  law  of  leprosy.  Lev.  xiv.  40,  42. 
The  temple  (1  Kings  v.  17)  and  palace  of  Solomon  (1 
Kings  vii.  9)  and  the  residences  of  the  rich  (Amos  v.  11) 
were  of  hewn  stone,  which  were  often  very  costly,  so  that 
the  term  "precious  stones"  is  used  both  of  those  employed 
in  building  (2  Chron.  iii.  6;  Isa.  xxviii.  16;  1  Pet.  ii.  4) 
and  of  gems.  1  Kings  x.  2  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  2.  We  read  of 
marble  among  the  materials  of  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
2)  and  in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus.  Esth.  i.  6.  The  festiv- 
ity connected  with  laying  the  corner-stone  of  public  edifices 
is  alluded  to.  Ezra.  iii.  10 ;  Zech.  iv.  7  ;  Job  xxxviii.  6,  7. 
The  cement  used  at  Babel  was  slime,  Gen.  xi.  3 — i.e.,  bitu- 
men or  asphaltum.  Isaiah  (xxx.  12)  speaks  of  lime,  and  the 
same  word  is  rendered  plaster.  Deut.  xxvii.  4.  Mud  was  also 
used  for  mortar  (Lev.  xiv.  42,  45,  where  the  word  so  trans- 
lated means  properly  "  dust  "  or  "  earth  ").  The  acquaint- 
ance of  the  ancient  Hebrews  with  the  structure  and  use  of 
the  arch  is  directly  vouched  for,  if  this  is  intended,  as  able 
scholars  suppose,  by  the  words  improperly  translated  "  emi- 
nent place"  (Ezek.  xvi.  24)  and  "troop."  Amos  ix.  6.    The 

18 


206  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

wood-work  was  commonly  of  sycamore  (Isa.  ix.  10),  though 
in  more  elegant  and  costly  structures  olive,  fir  (or  cypress), 
cedar  and  almug  trees  (or  sandal-wood)  were  employed.  1 
Kings  vi.  15,31;  x.  12,  27. 

Houses  of  the  better  class  were  built  in  a  quadrangle 
around  a  central  court,  which  was  paved  (Esth.  i.  6)  and 
often  very  spacious  (Neh.  viii.  16),  with  trees  and  flowers 
and  a  well  or  fountain  (2  Sam.  xvii.  18),  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  covered  colonnade  or  portico  (whence  the 
figures  Ps.  Ixxv.  3 ;  Prov.  ix.  1 ;  Gal.  ii.  9),  which  was  often 
surmounted  by  a  gallery  protected  by  a  balustrade.  2  Kings 
i.  2.  The  court  was  the  favorite  resort  of  the  family,  as 
well  as  frequented  for  social  purposes  and  on  festive  occasions. 
Esth.  i.  5  ;  v.  1.  The  innermost  apartments  were  assigned 
to  the  women,  or  separate  houses  built  for  them.  1  Kings 
vii.  8 ;  Esth.  ii.  3. 

The  roofs  were  flat  and  covered  with  a  compact  mass  of 
pebbles,  plaster  and  other  materials,  or  sometimes  simply 
with  earth  ;  hence  the  mention  of  "  grass  upon  the  house- 
tops." 2  Kings  xix.  26  ;  Ps.  cxxix.  6.  Such  roofs,  of  course, 
were  not  always  impervious  to  rain.  Prov.  xxvii.  15.  They 
were  required  by  the  law  to  be  protected  by  a  low  wall  or 
parapet.  Deut.  xxii.  18.  The  roof  was  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes.  There  Rahab  had  the  stalks  of  flax 
under  which  she  hid  the  spies  (Josh.  ii.  6)  ;  on  it  David 
slept  and  walked  in  the  cool  c^  the  -evcLling  (2  Sam.  xi.  2)  ; 
to  it  Samuel  took  Saul  for  private  conversation  (1  Sam.  ix. 
25)  ;  Peter  went  thithe/  for  prayer  (Acts  x.  9)  ;  altars 
were  erected  there  for  idolatrous  purposes"^  ;  Kings  xxiii. 
12) ;  incense  was  burned  there,  and  drink-offerings  poured 
out  (Jer.  xix.  13  ;  xxxii.  29  ;  Zeph.  i.  5) ;  t  "-^e  i  -""saud 
men  and  women  were  on  the  roof  of  the  ten.  -^.  Tents, 
to  behold  while  Samson  made  sport.  Judg.  ings  into  two, 
read  of  proclaiming  on  the  housetops  (Luke  >'^i^nt.s,  one  for 
entation  on  the  housetops  (Isa,  xv.  3 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  ooj,  .  - 


AliCn^^OLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  207 

going  to  the  roof  to  fight  (Judg.  ix.  51),  of  booths  erected 
there  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (Neh.  viii.  16)  ;  and  a 
general  excitement  or  commotion  in  a  city  is  represented  by 
saying  that  the  whole  population  had  gone  up  to  the  house- 
tops. Isa.  xxii.  1.  The  friends  of  a  paralytic  in  bringing 
him  to  Jesus  uncovered  the  roof  where  he  was,  and  after 
breaking  it  up  let  the  sick  man  down  through  the  tiling. 
Mark  ii.  4 ;  Luke  v.  19.  Some  have  sought  to  accommo- 
date these  expressions  to  the  removal  of  an  awning  stretched 
over  the  court,  but  their  proper  force  implies  that  they  dug 
through  the  earth  or  plaster  of  the  roof  and  let  him  down 
into  the  room  beneath  where  Jesus  was  with  the  crowd. 
They  were  able  to  reach  the  roof  by  steps  leading  to  it 
from  the  street  without  passing  through  the  house,  which 
likewise  explains  our  Lord's  direction  (Mark  xiii,  15) : 
"  Let  him  that  is  on  the  housetop  not  go  down  into  the 
house."        // 

Frequent  'mention  is  made  of  the  "  upper  chamber,"  a 
kirge  and  important  room  in  the  second  story,  sometimes 
itself  constituting  all  there  was  of  a  second  story,  being 
built  above  the  general  level  of  the  roof.  It  was  in  this 
King  Eglon  was  found  when  Ehud  came  to  him.  Judg.  iii. 
20.  It  was  often  appropriated  to  the  use  of  guests,  as  the 
chamber  occupied  by  Elijah  (1  Kings  xvii.  19),  the  chamber 
on  the  wall  assigned  to  Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  10),  and  the 
guest-chamber  where  our  L^^'d  and  his  apostles  partook  of 
the  Last  Supper.  MaiK  XiV.  15.  It  was  in  an  upper  cham- 
ber that  David  mourned  for  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33), 
that  Daniel  t  iice  a  day  offered  prayer  (Dan.  vi.  10),  and 
that  the  early  disciples  assembled  after  the  ascension  of  the 
SavioiT  }  Ao^  •'  i.  13.  It  was  in  an  upper  chamber  too  that 
ance  Ji  /abitha  was  prepared  for  interment.  Acts  ix. 

the  arch  is  *  )  in  Troas  w^here  Paul  preached  (Acts.  xx. 
scholars  suf,  rd  loft "  or  third  story.  The  only  other 
V    ^uii^s  mentioned  in  Scripture  of  which  this  is  expressly 


208  PREPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

stated  are  Noah's  ark  (Gen.  vi.  16),  the  structures  adjacent 
to  the  temple  (1  Kiugs  vi.  6,  8)  and  the  house  of  the  forest 
of  Lebanon.  1  Kings  vii.  4,  5. 

The  house  was  entered  by  an  outer  gate,  on  the  side-posts 
and  lintels  of  which  passages  were  often  inscribed  from  the 
law  (Deut.  vi.  9  ;  xi.  20),  and  which  was  opened  by  a  por- 
ter or  maid  (John  xviii.  16 ;  Acts  xii.  13),  and  led  into  a 
vestibule  (called  a  porch  Matt.  xxvi.  71 ;  Mark  xiv.  68) 
that  served  as  an  ante-room  from  which  one  could  either 
ascend  by  steps  or  winding  stairs  (1  Kings  vi.  8)  to  the  roof 
or  upper  chamber,  or  pass  on  through  a  door  into  the  court, 
whence  access  was  gained  to  the  several  rooms  of  the  house. 
The  doors  were  commonly  low  (Prov.  xvii.  19),  though  in 
stately  edifices  high  folding-doors  were  used.  1  Kings  vi. 
34  ;  Ezek.  xli.  24.  Tenons  inserted  in  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  door,  and  moving  in  sockets  in  the  lintel  and  sill, 
answered  for  hinges.  1  Kings  vii.  50 ;  Prov.  xxvi.  14. 
The  doors  were  fastened  by  bars  or  wooden  bolts,  which, 
when  pushed  into  place,  were  secured  by  pins  dropping  into 
holes  to  which  they  were  severally  fitted.  These  pins  could 
be  raised  and  the  bolt  withdrawn  by  a  key  from  the  outside. 
Judg.  iii.  25 ;  Cant.  v.  5.  The  windows  were  unglazed  lat- 
tices, extending  nearly  to  the  floor,  and  opening  not  merely 
upon  the  court,  as  is  almost  exclusively  the  case  in  modern 
Oriental  houses,  but  likewise  upon  the  street,  so  that  the 
mother  of  Sisera  could  watch  for  his  coming  (Judg.  v.  28), 
Jezebel  be  thrown  into  the  street  on  the  demand  of  Jehu 
(2  Kings  ix.  30-33),  a  bride  could  see  her  beloved's  ap- 
proach (Cant.  ii.  9),  one  within  the  house  have  a  full  view 
of  what  was  passing  without  (Prov.  vii.  6),  and  Daniel 
could  have  his  windows  opened  toward  Jerusalem.  Dan.  vi. 
10.  The  blank  walls  which  Oriental  houses  now  present  on 
their  exterior  are  the  result  of  long  oppression,  and  have  been 
resorted  to  as  a  defence  against  espionage  and  unwelcome 
intrusion.     The  passages  above  cited  also  show  that  the 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  209 

women  were  not  restricted,  as  now,  to  apartments  looking 
out  upon  the  garden  at  the  back  of  the  house. 

Walls  were  mostly  whitewashed.  Matt,  xxiii.  27.  The 
word  rendered  "  untempered  mortar  "  (Ezek.  xiii.  10)  pro- 
perly means  "  whitewash,"  which  the  prophet  declares  can- 
not hide  the  defects  of  the  badly-constructed  wall.  In 
palaces  the  interior  walls  were  painted  with  more  showy 
colors  and  wainscoted.  Jer.  xxii.  14 ;  1  Kings  vii.  7.  The 
"  ceiled  houses  "  spoken  of  in  Hag.  i.  4  are  properly  houses 
thus  wainscoted.  For  still  greater  elegance  they  were  some- 
times inlaid  with  ivory,  as  the  ivory  house  of  Ahab  (1 
Kings  xxii.  39),  those  spoken  of  in  Amos  iii.  15  and  the 
ivory  palaces  of  Ps.  xlv.  8.  The  floors  were  of  plaster  or 
mosaic.  In  cold  weather  fire  was  kindled  in  the  court 
(Luke  xxii.  55),  or  in  a  vessel  set  in  the  centre  of  the 
apartment,  for  which  there  was  sometimes  a  cavity 
Bunk  in  the  floor.  Isa.  xlvii.  14.  The  hearth  before  which 
King  Jehoiakim  sat  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22)  was  such  a  pot 
or  pan  of  coals.  In  Eastern  houses  at  the  present  day, 
when  the  fire  has  burnt  down,  a  frame  like  a  table  is  placed 
over  the  pot,  and  the  whole  is  then  covered  with  a  carpet ; 
and  those  who  wish  to  warm  themselves  sit  upon  the  floor 
and  thrust  their  feet  and  legs,  and  even  the  lower  part  of 
their  bodies,  under  the  carpet.  There  were  no  chimneys, 
but  the  smoke  escaped  through  the  windows.  The  word 
translated  "chimney"  (Hos.  xiii.  3)  means  a  "lattice."  In 
the  houses  of  the  rich  there  were  sometimes  distinct  apart- 
ments for  summer  and  for  winter.  Judg.  iii.  20 ;  Amos  iii. 
15.  The  "  boiling-places  "  spoken  of  (Ezek.  xlvi.  23,  24) 
were  probably  kitchens. 

The  furniture  of  dwellings  varied  then,  as  now,  of  course, 
with  the  wealth  and  taste  of  the  owner.  In  the  room  pro- 
vided for  Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  10)  there  was  a  bed,  table, 
stool  or  chair,  and  candlestick  or  lamp-stand.  A  raised 
platform  at  th*i  end  or  on  the  sides  of  the  room  with  cush- 

18* 


210  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

ions  and  pillows  (Ezek.  xiii.  18),*  or  a  low  bedstead  (Ps.  vi 
6;  Amos  iii.  12),  which  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  was  ofteE 
inlaid  with  ivory  (Amos  vi.  4)  and  supplied  with  costly- 
coverings  (Prov.  vii.  16),  answered  the  double  purpose  of  a 
seat  by  day  and  of  a  bed  at  night.  Chairs  were  more 
usual  among  the  ancient  Israelites  (Prov.  ix.  14)  and  Egypt- 
ians than  in  the  East  at  present. 

The  population  dwelt  both  in  walled  cities,  which  were 
often  strongly  fortified,  like  those  of  Bashan,  which  were 
"  fenced  with  high  walls,  gates  and  bars  "  (Deut.  iii.  5),  and 
'in  unwalled  towns  and  villages.  Lev.  xxv.  29,  31 ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  18 ;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  11.  The  streets,  as  in  Eastern  towns 
in  modern  times,  were  doubtless  for  the  most  part  narrow 
and  crooked,  though  the  principal  avenues  were  broader 
(Nah.  ii.  4 ;  Cant.  iii.  2)  ;  and  one  street  in  Damascus  bore 
the  name  of  "  Straight."  Acts  ix.  11.  The  vast  size  of 
Babylon  and  Nineveh,  which  is  called  a  city  of  three  days' 
journey  (Jon.  iii.  3),  is  accounted  for  by  the  existence  of 
gardens  and  large  open  spaces  within  the  city  limits.  The 
mire  of  the  streets  (Isa.  x.  6  ;  Zech.  ix.  3)  implies  that  they 
were  commonly  unpaved,  though,  if  Josephus  is  to  be  cred- 
ited, Solomon  paved  the  roads  leading  to  Jerusalem  with 
black  stone — a  process  which  would  probably  be  extended 
to  the  principal  streets  of  the  city  itself.  He  further  states 
that  Jerusalem  was  paved  with  white  stone  by  direction  of 
Herod  Agrippa.  Open  spaces  near  the  gates  were  used  for 
markets  (2  Kings  vii.  1),  for  tribunals  of  justice  (2  Sam.  xv. 
2 ;  Job  V.  4 ;  xxix.  7),  for  the  transaction  of  business  (Gen. 
xxiii.  10;  Ruth  iv.  1,  11 ;  Prov.  xxxi.  23)  and  for  public 
assemblies.  2  Chron.  xxxii.  6 ;  Neh.  viii.  1. 

*  Literally,  "  Woe  to  the  women  that  sew  pillows  to  all  hand-joints," 
the  soft  appliances  by  which  false  prophets  lull  the  people  to  an  easy 
security  being  represented  by  an  over-refinement  of  luxury  which 
would  place  pillows  not  only  under  the  arms  and  elbows  of  those  wlio 
recline  or  lean  upon  them,  but  under  the  very  wrists  and  knuckles. 


A  SUMMARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE. 


BY 

FRANCIS  L.  PATTON,  D.  D., 

Professor  ijs  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  of 
THB-^foSrSwEST,  Chicago..  Ill, 


INTRODUCTOEY. 


An  opinion  is  one  thing,  a  fact  is  another.  If  a  in  an 
says  that  he  believes  the  moon  is  inhabited,  we  may  very 
properly  say,  "  That  is  your  opinion,  but  we  differ  with  you." 
And  since  the  opinion  in  question  is  at  present  not  capable 
of  proof,  prolonged  argument  would  not  be  called  for. 

Many  entertain  the  idea  that  what  are  called  "  the  doc- 
trines" are  only  conjectures  or  opinions  for  which  there  is 
little  or  no  evidence,  and  certainly  no  proof. 

This  is  a  mistake. 

We  may  assent  or  not  to  an  opinion  as  we  please ;  if  we 
reject  a  fact,  we  only  advertise  our  stupidity.  If  a  man 
denies  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  are  together  equal 
to  two  right  angles,  we  can  demonstrate  the  proposition. 
If  he  says  that  Brutus  did  not  kill  Csesar,  we  can  open 
the  books  of  history  and  convince  him.  In  the  one  case 
we  reach  mathematical  certainty,  in  the  other  moral.  If 
in  face  of  evidence  a  man  persists  in  denying  facts,  he  acts 
unreasonably.     Now,  "the  doctrines"  are  facts. 

But  though  truth  for  truth's  sake  is  the  motto  of  the 
philosopher,  it  is  nevertheless  certain  that  we  cannot  know 
everything,  and  there  may  be  considerations  which  make 
some  truths  more  important  than  others.  The  sick  man 
wishes  above  all  things  to  know  what  medicine  will  help  his 
case.  And  the  most  important  truth  to  every  man  is  that 
which  makes  known  the  conditions  of  a  happy  hereafter. 
"The  doctrines"  claim  a  position  above  all   other  truth 

213 


214  PBEPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

because  of  their  practical  value.  If  anyone  chooses  to  call 
this  a  utilitarian  philosophy,  he  may.  Certainly,  if  there 
were  no  questions  of  destiny  pending,  there  might  be  more 
excuse  for  those  who  are  jubilant  over  the  discovery  of  a 
fossil,  but  indifferent  to  the  facts  of  Christianity.  The  doc- 
trines are  truths  which  are  capable  of  proof,  and  which 
stand  in  vital  relation  to  the  life  that  now  is  and  to  that 
which  is  to  come.  These  considerations  will  shape  the 
method  to  be  observed  in  the  following  pages, 


LESSOJr  I. 
THE   FACTOKS   IN   EELIGION :   MAN  AND   GOD. 

Keligion  is  the  bond  which  unites  God  and  man.  It 
supposes,  therefore,  two  factors — man,  the  subject  of  relig- 
ious feelings,  and  God,  the  object  of  religious  worship.  To 
cast  doubt  on  either  of  these  factors  would  be  to  damage  or 
destroy  religion.  If  the  universal  beliefs  of  mankind  had 
been  allowed  to  pass  unchallenged,  it  would  not  be  necessary 
to  offer  arguments  for  the  existence  of  mind  or  of  God. 
Infidels,  however,  have  put  Christians  on  their  defence,  and 
their  bold  denials  of  fundamental  truth  make  it  proper, 
and  perhaps  necessary,  that,  even  in  so  brief  a  statement 
of  doctrine  as  this  is  intended  to  be,  something  should  be 
said  to  show  how  we  can  vindicate  our  religious  nature. 

I.  Man. 

The  most  pretentious  form  of  current  philosophy  denies 
our  existence,  or  rather,  that  element  in  our  existence  which 
gives  it  value :  the  mind.  The  student  of  theology  has  a 
battle  to  fight  at  the  threshold,  and  his  first  foe  is  the 
materialist;  for  if  it  should  turn  out  that  what  we  call 
mind  is  only  material  force,  it  would  be  absurd  tc  talk  of 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  215 

religicii,  since  there  could  be  no  God  to  worship  and  no 
•'we"  to  bow  down  to  him.  Suppose,  now,  that  some  dis- 
ciple of  Maudesley  should  hear  us  arguing  for  the  being 
of  God  from  the  laws  of  mind,  and  should  meet  us  plumply 
with  the  question,  How  do  you  know  that  such  a  thing  as 
mind  exists?  What  should  we  say?  We  might  feel  that 
this  is  a  question  which  we  were  not  expecting — we  should 
certainly  feel  that,  metaphysical  though  it  is,  it  has  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  religion,  and  demands  an  answer.  Our 
reflections  when  written  out  might  take  a  form  something 
like  the  following : 

1.  I  exist.  This  is  taken  for  granted  in  everything  I 
do,  say  or  think.  There  can  be  no  knowing,  feeling,  will- 
ing, without  an  "I"  to  know,  feel  and  will.  What  is  this 
something  which  goes  by  the  name.  "I,"  "me,"  "self," 
"  ego"  ?  It  is  not  my  body,  for  I  know  I  am  separate  from 
it.  It  is  not  any  part  of  my  body ;  my  brain  is  mine,  not 
me.  There  is  a  necessity  laid  upon  me  of  thinking  that  I 
exist;  for  if  I  should  think  I  did  not  exist,  I  should  have 
to  exist  in  order  to  think  that  I  did  not.  This  brings  us  to 
Descartes'  famous  utterance,  "  I  think,  therefore  I  am." 

Now,  I  have  certain  powers  or  attributes  which  my  body 
does  not  have,  which  no  part  of  my  body  has.  I  will  to 
lift  my  arm.  I  know  that  my  arm  could  not  exert  an  act 
of  will,  nor  is  it  possible  for  me  to  conceive  of  any  material 
substance  exercising  volition.  Will  power  is  a  power  which 
"I"  exert;  and  when  I  see  a  manifestation  of  it  which  is 
not  due  to  me,  I  at  once  attribute  it  to  another  "I"  or 
"self"  similar  to  me — that  is  to  say,  to  another  person.  I 
know.  Knowledge  is  one  of  my  prerogatives  which  mate- 
rial substances  do  not  possess.  A  stone  cannot  know  or 
leel. 

To  sum  up  :  There  is  a  something,  ens,  entity,  s  ibstance 
— called  "  I,"  "  me,"  "  self"  This  something  has  attributes 
which  matter  has  not,  and  it  has  not  the  properties  of  mat- 


216  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

ter.  We  are  compelled  to  think  that  it  is  a  different  sub- 
stance, and  we  call  it  mind.  The  more  we  attempt  to  real- 
ize the  proposition  that  mind  is  matter,  the  more  its  absurd- 
ity grows  upon  us,  and  the  more  does  the  distinction 
between  the  two  assert  itself  as  a  necessity  of  thought.  In 
philosophical  language  we  say  that  the  distinction  is  a  fact 
of  consciousness. 

2.  The  philosophy  which  denies  mind  a  place  in  the 
universe  ought  to  be  able  to  support  its  terrible  conclusions 
by  the  presentation  of  evidence.  But  when  asked  on  what 
authority  they  deny  the  universal  beliefs  of  mankind,  these 
philosophers  have  very  little  to  say.  To  be  sure,  they  are 
able  to  show  that  there  is  aw  intimate  connection  between 
mind  and  body,  and  they  talk  learnedly  about  nerve-cur- 
rents and  the  grey  matter  of  the  brain.  But  between 
matter  and  thought,  between  nerve-currents  and  personal- 
ity, there  is  a  breach  which  this  philosophy  does  not  fill. 
The  belief  in  mind  is  a  necessity  of  thought — a  necessity 
felt  none  the  less  by  those  who  write  books  to  prove  that 
mind  does  not  exist.  The  materialist  has  encountered  two 
barriers  which  rise  mountain-like  to  dispute  his  passage 
into  the  realm  of  mind :  the  one  is  the  mystery  of  life,  and 
the  other  is  the  mystery  of  personality.  The  attempt  to 
bring  a  living  thing  out  of  dead  matter  and  to  make  mind 
a  department  of  physiology  has  been  a  failure. 

3.  The  hypothesis  that  thought  is  a  function  of  brain 
•s  beset  with  endless  confusion,  and  is  palpably  absurd. 
According  to  it,  the  rationale  of  conversation  is  this :  A 
movement  takes  place  in  A's  brain  which  we  call  A's  voli- 
tion to  speak ;  other  movements  follow  which  we  call 
thoughts ;  these  are  attended  with  the  articulation  of  cer- 
tain sounds ;  these  fall  on  the  tympanum  of  B's  ear,  affect 
the  auditory  nerve  and  cause  the  movements  or  nerve-cur- 
rents called  hearing ;  other  movements  follow  in  B's  brain, 
attended  by  corresponding  articulations,  which   constitute 


SJMMAnT  OF  DOCTRINE.  217 

B's  reply.  Talking  is  just  telegraph-operating  without  the 
operators. 

The  theory  involves  the  following  incongruous  elements  : 
(a.)  Matter  thinks,  feels,  wills.  (6.)  The  irresistible  convic- 
tion of  this  thinking  matter  is  that  it  is  not  matter,  but 
mind,  (c.)  Thinking,  feeling,  willing,  as  it  does,  this  mat- 
ter is  necessarily  of  the  opinion  that  matter  cannot  think, 
feel  or  -will. 

And  further,  we  might  say  to  him  who  seeks  to  convince 
us  that  mind  does  not  exist :  It  is  folly  for  you  to  undertake 
any  such  task  ;  for  if  your  theory  is  true,  I  am  not  properly 
the  subject  of  argument.  You  might  as  well  expect  a  dead 
man  to  find  comfort  in  his  funeral  sermon.  Convincing  me, 
were  you  to  succeed,  would  only  mean  setting  in  motion  cer- 
tain nerve-currents  in  a  material  organism.  And  besides, you, 
in  the  act  of  arguing,  are  only  a  material  organism,  with  a 
set  of  material  forces  at  ^vork  which  you  call  your  philosoph- 
ical opinions.  One  Leyden  jar  might  as  well  be  supposed 
to  discuss  chemistry  with  another  Leyden  jar  as  for  you  and 
me  to  talk  metaphysics. 

And  yet  again  :  If  I  am  convinced  that  you  are  right,  I 
am  convinced  that  consciousness  has  played  me  false.  But 
if  in  regard  to  this  fundamental  conviction  I  am  deceived, 
how  can  I  be  sure  of  my  eyes  and  my  ears  when  they  tell 
me  that  you  are  present  and  that  you  speak  ?  To  be  con- 
vinced that  consciousness  is  a  false  witness  seems  to  be  im- 
possible, when  I  remember  that  my  belief  in  the  existence 
of  my  philosophical  acquaintance  is  founded  on  a  belief  in 
the  veracity  of  consciousness.  I  must  trust  my  consciousness 
In  order  that  I  mny  be  convinced  that  it  is  mendacious, 
which  involves  an  absurdity  akin  to  that  of  a  man  trying 
to  take  himself  up  in  his  arms. 

19 


218  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

II.  God. 

The  belief  ii  God  is  universal.  All  men  believe  in  the 
existence  of  some  being  or  beings  above  them  to  whom  they 
are  responsible  and  whom  it  behooves  them  to  propitiate. 
This  belief  is  not  the  result  of  argument,  for  the  majority 
of  men  have  never  faced  the  question  why  they  believe  in 
'  God.  The  fact  that  this  belief  is  so  widespread  is  a  strong 
argument  in  favor  of  its  truth.  It  would  be  strange  if  the 
human  race  were  unanimous  in  entertaining  a  falsehood 
like  this ;  and  though  the  atheist  will  say  that  this  is  not 
more  strange  than  the  fact  that  men  for  ages  believed 
that  sun,  moon  and  stars  revolved  round  the  earth,  yet  a 
moment's  thought  will  show  that  the  cases  are  not  parallel. 
The  sun  seemed  to  them  to  rise  and  set,  and  the  stars  to 
move  from  east  to  west.  It  was  perfectly  natural  that  they 
should  trust  their  eyes.  Or  if  it  should  be  said  that  men 
have  held  with  considerable  unanimity  the  belief  in  many 
superstitions  regarding  the  supernatural,  we  should  reply 
again  that,  given  the  fact  of  a  widespread  conception  re- 
specting the  supernatural,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand 
the  multiplied  misconceptions.  But  it  is  not  easy  to 
explain  how  it  happened  that  a  universal  belief  in  the 
supernatural  should  have  taken  possession  of  the  minds 
of  men  if  there  is  no  supernatural.  If  God  exists,  w^e  can 
account  for  the  crudities  which  are  associated  with  the  be- 
lief in  his  existence.  But  on  the  hypothesis  of  material- 
ism, the  genesis  of  the  idea  of  God  is  without  explanation. 
Atheism  leaves  us  with  a  universal  effect  without  any  assign- 
able cause.  Our  belief  in  God  we  will  allow  is  open,  however, 
to  honest  criticism.  If  evidence  could  be  brought  to  show 
that  it  is  without  foundation  or  is  false,  we  should  listen  to 
it  and  give  it  all  the  consideration  it  deserves.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  fair  to  require  of  him  who  undertakes  to  over- 
throw  the   world's   faith   that   he   present   some   objection 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  219 

which  goes  beyond  an  ae^sertion  of  his  own  skepticis  n.  The 
atheist  as  yet  has  not  met  this  requirement.  If  he  reminds 
us  that  advancing  science  is  banishing  polytheism,  we  shall 
remind  him.  on  the  other  hand,  that  it  is  at  the  same  time 
establishing  theism.  If  he  tells  us  that  the  phenomena  in 
the  material  world  occur  in  accordance  with  universal  law 
and  are  due  to  the  operation  of  one  force,  we  shall  tell  him 
that  he  must  believe  in  one  omnipotent  and  omnipresent  Be- 
ing before  these  generalizations  can  have  any  significance, 
that  they  do  not  conflict  necessarily  with  our  belief  in  God, 
and  that  they  do  not  add  much  to  what  we  learned  from  the 
Book  which  says :  "In  him  we  live  and  move  and  have 
our  being"  (Acts  xvii.  28),  and  which  tells  us  that  "In  him 
and  through  him  and  to  him  are  all  things."  Kom.  xi.  36. 

Belief  in  God  is  universal ;  this  is  a  presumption  in 
favor  of  the  doctrine  of  God's  existence,  and  lays  the  bur- 
den of  proof  on  him  who  undertakes  to  set  it  aside.  The 
atheist  may  be  defied  to  show  that  any  fact  of  science  is 
inconsonant  with  theism.  We,  however,  are  able  to  pro- 
duce arguments  which  abundantly  serve  to  vindicate  our 
faith  and  to  condemn  the  atheist. 

We  shall  notice  four :  (1.)  That  which  is  based  on  the 
idea  of  cause.  (2.)  That  which  arises  out  of  our  moral 
nature.     (3.)  Scripture.     (4.)  Congruity. 

1.  Cause.  We  are  so  constituted  that  whenever  any 
event  occurs  we  are  necessarily  led  to  ask  a  reason  for  it,  or 
to  believe  that  it  was  due  to  some  cause.  This  fact  in  our 
mental  constitution  is  the  basis  of  the  two  methods  of  rea- 
soning which  are  commonly  known  as  the  cosmological  and 
the  teleological  arguments. 

(a.)  The  cosmological  argument.  Every  change  is  due 
to  some  cause.  Let  us  see  where  this  statement  will  lead 
us.  We  exist.  We  owe  our  existence  to  our  parents.  Our 
parents  owe  theirs  to  their  parents,  and  so  on.  Unless  we 
adopt  Darwinism,  we  must  conclude  that  the  human  race  is 


220  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

eternal,  or  that  the  chain  of  which  parent  and  child  are  the 
links  terminates  in  our  first  parents.  But  we  caLnot  believe 
that  the  human  race  is  eternal,  for  this  would  be  like  sup- 
posing that  one  link  of  a  chain  is  supported  by  the  one 
above  it,  and  that  by  the  one  above  it,  and  so  back  to  infin- 
ity. By  a  necessity  of  thought  we  must  think  of  a  first 
link  which  is  fixed  and  which  supports  all  the  rest.  So  the 
chain  of  causes  must  bring  us  to  the  first  man,  the  father  of 
the  human  race,  and  he  must  be  self-existent,  or  he  must  seek 
for  a  cause  of  his  existence.     How  did  he  come  into  being? 

Take  other  species  of  animal  life.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  any  species  has  developed  by  gradual  transition  out 
of  a  lower  species;  so  that,  tracing  the  individuals  of  any 
species  backward,  we  come,  as  in  the  case  of  man,  to  the 
first  individuals  of  the  species.  And  the  question  occurs 
again,  What  is  the  cause  of  their  existence? 

We  are  of  necessity  led  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  a 
necessary  self-existing  First  Cause ;  and  unless  we  adopt 
the  theory  of  evolution,  we  soon  come  to  a  point  where  it 
becomes  necessary  to  look  for  that  cause  outside  of  matter. 
But  were  the  hypothesis  of  evolution  accepted,  it  would  re- 
lieve us  of  no  difficulty ;  for  grant  that  the  effects  or  changes 
in  the  material  world  can  be  traced  back  in  a  chain  of  finite 
causations  till  we  come  to  an  original  ether,  this  ether  is 
in  motion  or  else  it  is  at  rest.  If  it  is  in  motion,  the  motion 
is  a  change  which  demands  a  cause ;  and  as  an  infinite  series 
of  finite  causes  is  inconceivable,  we  must  believe  that  mat- 
ter is  the  originator  of  motion  or  is  self-moved.  But  this 
is  inconceivable.  Plato  argued,  and  we  see  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  correctness  of  his  reasoning,  that,  since  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  mind  to  conceive  of  matter  originating  mo- 
tion, there  must  be  a  mind  as  the  first  cause  of  motion. 

(6.)  The  teleological  argument.  This  likewise  is  as  old  as 
Plato,  though  made  more  familiar  to  us  by  the  writings  of 
Paley  and  others.     If,  says  Paley,  we  were  waJking  on  the 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  221 

sea-shore,  and  should  find  a  watch  on  the  sand,  we  should 
discover  on  examination  that  it  was  intended  to  be  a  measurer 
of  time,  that  the  parts  of  the  watch  are  contrived  for  bring- 
ing about  this  result ;  we  should  never  dream  that  the  parts 
were  fitted  to  each  other  and  with  such  delicate  adjustment, 
as  a  matter  of  chance.  We  could  not  resist  the  feeling  that 
the  watch  was  the  product  of  wonderful  skill,  and  the  work 
of  a  designing  mind.  Applying  this  reasoning  to  what  we 
observe  in  nature,  we  conclude  that  the  universe  is  not  only 
an  eflfect  which  has  a  cause,  but  an  eflTect  which  has  an 
intelligent  cause.  Paley's  watch  is  none  the  worse  for  wear ; 
and  however  much  some  are  disposed  to  disparage  this  line 
of  argument,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  it  is  impossible  for 
the  mind  to  face  the  evidences  of  design  in  nature  without 
feeling  that  they  testify  to  an  intelligent  Creator.  A  man 
may  say  that  it  is  possible  that  these  so-called  adaptations 
are  nothing  more  than  a  fortuitous  concourse  of  atoms. 
When  he  says  this,  however,  he  is  not  seeking  truth,  but 
seeking  an  excuse  for  not  assenting  to  the  force  of  evidence. 
As  long  as  he  is  in  this  state  of  mind  it  will  be  of  no  use 
to  multiply  the  evidences  of  design.  The  man  who  can 
see  no  evidence  of  design  in  the  structure  of  his  own  body 
is  not  likely  to  be  convinced  by  illustrations  drawn  from 
the  latest  discoveries  in  science.* 

2.  The  moral  argument.  There  are  two  pairs  of  correla- 
tive expressions  which  we  all  use,  and  which,  if  we  stop  to 
think,  almost  necessarily  suggest  the  idea  of  God.  These 
expressions  are — right  and  WTong ;  ought  and  ought  not. 

Some  actions  w^e  pronounce  right,  others  we  say  are 
wrong.     Benevolence  is  right,  envy  is  wrong.     The-  same 

*  For  illustrations  of  design  in  nature,  we  refer  to  the  admirable 
summary  of  the  teleological  argument  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr. 
Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  to  the  numerous  works  on  natural  the- 
logy  and  to  the  volumes  of  lectures  published  by  the  Christian  Evi- 
dence Society  of  London. 
19* 


222  PBEPABINQ   TO    TEACH. 

thing  may  be  called  right  and  wrong,  it  is  true,  by  different 
persons,  but  all  feel  that  the  distinction  is  fundamental  and 
necessary.  It  is  not  because  a  word  or  action  pleases  us  that 
we  call  it  right.  Its  moral  quality  we  know  is  something 
altogether  different  from  the  feeling  of  pleasure  or  displeas- 
ure which  it  occasions.  We  are  conscious,  when  we  say  of 
a  word  or  act  that  it  is  wrong,  of  appealing  to  an  absolute 
standard,  and  our  judgment  is  simply  an  expression  of  its 
want  of  conformity  with  it.  A  standard  there  must  be,  or 
the  words  right  and  wrong  would  have  no  meaning.  What 
is  that  standard?  Some  tell  us  that  there  is  an  eternal 
principle  of  right,  but  what  meaning  can  we  attach  to  a 
principle  of  right  as  the  standard  of  moral  action?  Let  us, 
however,  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  perfect  moral  being, 
whose  nature  constitutes  the  ground  of  right,  and  then  we 
use  language  intelligibly  when  we  speak  of  right  and  wrong. 

Again,  morality  is  obligatory.  We  are  conscious  of  this. 
There  are  some  things  which  we  ought  to  do  and  some  which 
we  ought  not  to  do.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  say- 
ing to  a  man,  "  It  will  be  better  for  you  to  be  honest,  for  hon- 
esty is  the  best  policy,"  and  saying,  "  You  are  bound  to  be 
honest."  The  difference  is  so  great  that,  though  the  attempt 
has  more  than  once  been  made  to  show  how  the  idea  of 
obligation  can  be  developed  out  of  the  idea  of  expediency, 
it  has  never  succeeded.  If  there  is  no  God,  why  do  I  feel 
under  obligation  ?  Who  has  a  right  to  command  me  ?  If 
atheism  is  true,  obligatory  morals  are  impossible.  Our 
moral  nature  speaks,  however,  in  the  imperative  mood.  We 
must  believe  in  God,  or  believe  that  the  root  of  our  nature 
is  a  lie. 

3.  Scripture.  A  great  deal  of  our  knowledge  rests  on  the 
testimony  of  others.  Testimony,  however,  would  be  worth- 
less if  we  believed  that  men  would  lie  as  readily  as  they  would 
speak  the  truth.  Now,  supposing  that  we  were  not  led  by 
the  constitution  of  our  nature  to  believe  in  God,  there  is  no 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  223 

reason  why  the  Bible  should  not  be  competent  to  give  inde- 
pendent proof  of  His  being.     If  the  testimony  of  travelers 
is  enough  to  satisfy  us  as  to  the  appearance  and  habits  of 
men  in  the  heart  of  Africa  whom  we  have  never  seen,  the 
Bible,  if  it  is  authentic  history,  is  enough  to  satisfy  us  of  the 
existence  of  a  Being  who  made  all  things,  who  works  mira- 
cles and  knows  the  end  from  the  beginning.     Some  facts, 
we  concede,  require  more  evidence  than  others,  for  their  sup- 
port.    The  Bible  history,  however,  is  supported  by  evidence 
enough  to  satisfy  every  just  demand.     If  any  history  is  veri- 
table, the  history  of  the  Jews  is ;  but  take  God  out  of  the 
Jewish  history,  and  what  would  remain  ?      Pj'opliecy  is  not 
explainable  on  atheistic  principles,  but  the  Bible  contains 
the  record  of  prophecy  and  the  record  of  its  fulfillment. 
The  resurrection  of  Christ  is  certified  not  only  by  the  testi- 
mony of  those  who  saw  Him  alive  after  his  passion,  but  by 
the  fact  that  the  gospel  was  first  preached  in  Jerusalem, 
where  neither  the  desire  nor  the  material  was  wantiui?  for 
the  destruction  of  Christianity,  if  it  were  true  that  the  apos- 
tles appealed  to  a  falsehood  when  they  referred  to  the  resur- 
rection.    If  we  cannot  believe  in  God's  existence  on  the 
testimony  of  tlie  Bible,  we  might  as  well  burn  our  books 
of  history.     A   man  cannot  deny  its  testimony  unless  he 
says  plainly,  ''  No  amount  of  testimony  will  convince  me  of 
the  supernatural."     Of  course  such  skepticism  is  incurable. 
4.  Congruity.     We  know  that  we  have  the  wrong  key 
when  it  does  not  fit  all  the  wards  of  the  lock.     On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  a  strong  argument  for  the  truth  of  a  theory 
that  it  explains  all  the  facts  in  the  case.     The  belief  in  a 
self-existent  personal  God  is  in  harmony  with  all  the  facts 
of  our  mental  and  moral  nature  as  well  as  with  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  material  world.     If  God  exists,  a  universal 
belief  in  his  existence  is  natural  enough  ;  the  irresistible  im- 
pulse to  ask  for  a  first  cause  is  accounted  for ;  our  relig- 
ious nature  has  an  object;  the  uniformity  of  natural  law 


224  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

finds  an  adequate  explanation,  and  human  history  is  vin- 
dicated from  the  charge  of  being  an  immense  imposture. 
Atheism  leaves  all  these  matters  without  any  explanation, 
and  makes  not  history  alone,  but  our  intellectual  nature 
itself,  an  imposture  and  a  lie. 

The  line  of  argument  which  we  have  pursued  has  brought 
us  first  to  a  reasoned  belief  in  Animism,  and  secondly  to 
a  reasoned  belief  in  Theism.  The  atheist,  however,  may 
say,  "  This  mode  of  reasoning  is  not  demonstration.  It 
may  be  there  is  no  God,  and  that  my  consciousness  bears 
false  witness."  Of  course,  if  a  man  goes  so  far  as  to  charge 
his  very  nature  with  falsehood,  we  have  nothing  more  to 
say.  Discussion  would  be  useless.  It  is  worth  while  to 
note  the  fact  that  the  strongest  argument  of  the  atheist 
is  that  the  theist  has  not  demonstrated  the  being  of  God ; 
and  in  reply  it  is  enough  to  say:  (1.)  We  did  not  set  out 
with  a  promise  to  demonstrate  the  being  of  God,  but  to 
vindicate  a  universal  faith.  This  vve  claim  to  have  done 
by  arguments  which  ought  to  convince  you  and  which  are 
enough  to  condemn  you.  (2.)  Your  complaint  is  a  con- 
fession ;  for  when  you  seek  to  justify  your  disbelief  on  the 
ground  that  possibly  there  is  no  God,  you  virtually  confess 
that  the  question  of  God  is  at  leant  immensely  probable. 
We  have  no  wish  to  discuss  the  question  whether  the 
existence  of  God  is  a  demonstrable  proposition.  We  ask 
you  simply  to  consider  the  peril  in  which  you  stand  when 
you  assume  the  responsibility  of  denying  the  existence  of  a 
Being  whom  you  must  one  day  face.  (3.)  Probability  is  the 
guide  of  life.  You  admit  this  in  other  matters  ;  why  do  you 
deny  it  in  this  ?  If  you  go  to  sea  on  a  raft  because  there  is  a 
bare  possibility  that  you  will  cross  the  ocean  safely,  you  act 
like  an  idiot.  If  you  persist  in  atheism  in  face  of  all  the 
evidence  of  God's  existence,  you  are  what  the  Bible  calls  a 
"fool." 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  2'25 

LESSOJV  11. 
THE  EULE  OF  FAITH. 

Our  moral  nature  prompts  us  to  ask  many  questions,  and 
makes  us  impatient  until  they  are  answered.  What  is  the 
origin  of  the  human  race?  How  does  it  Jiappen  that  sin 
is  universal  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  Being  to  whom 
we  are  responsible?  May  we  trust  him,  or  must  we  be  in 
terror?  How  are  we  to  know  what  is  right  and  what  is 
wrong,  since  the  judgments  of  men  conflict?  Are  we  im- 
mortal? Is  it  a  happy  hereafter  which  awaits  us?  Does 
that  depend  on  anything  which  we  can  do?  If  so,  what 
must  WT  do  ? 

Whither  shall  we  go  for  a  satisfactory  answer  to  these 
inquiries  ?  We  cannot  rest  until  we  find  some  standard  of 
truth  which  we  can  regard  as  infallible.  Where  are  w'e  to 
find  it?  In  your  reason,  says  one.  In  the  Church,  says 
another.  In  the  Bible,  says  a  third.  The  decisions  we 
reach  respecting  our  rule  of  faith  will  determine  whether 
we  shall  be  Rationalists,  Romanists  or  Protestants.  Let  ua 
consider  these  answers  in  the  order  mentioned. 

I.  Reason. 

There  are  two  ways  of  investing  reason  with  infallibility. 
A  man  may  say  that  he  needs  no  other  revelation  than  the 
light  of  his  OAvn  intellect,  in  which  case  he  makes  reason 
the  source  of  knowledge;  or  he  may  say  that,  conceding  that 
the  Bible  contains  divine  revelations,  he  will  receive  nothing 
which  he  cannot  comprehend  Or  which  conflicts  with  his 
sense  of  right,  in  which  case  he  makes  reason  the  criterion 
of  truth. 

To  one  who  denies  the  necessity  or  the  possibility  of  a 
revelation  we  should  reply  by  saying : 

1.  If  you  deny  that  God  can  or  will  give  a  revelation, 


226  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

you  simply  make  yourself  a  pope  and  proclaim  your  infal- 
libility. Argument  with  you  is,  therefore,  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

2.  The  need  of  a  revelation  is  seen  in  the  conflicting 
opinions  which  men  entertain  respecting  fundamental  ques- 
tions. If  twelve  clocks  at  the  same  instant  indicate  a  dif- 
ferent hour,  it  is  certain  that  at  least  eleven  of  them  are 
wrong.  The  conflicting  verdicts  of  the  human  conscience 
on  matters  of  right  and  wrong  prove  that  without  a  reve- 
lation the  race  is  hopelessly  in  the  dark. 

3.  The  need  of  a  revelation  and  its  possibility  are  ques- 
tions wdiich  are  set  aside  by  the  undoubted  fact  that  God 
has  given  a  revelation,  and  that  we  have  it  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  When  the  steam-engine  was  invented, 
it  was  argued  that  it  never  could  be  made  a  means  of  land- 
travel.     The  railroad  is  a  refutation  of  the  reasoning. 

When,  however,  the  rationalist  takes  the  position  that 
reason  is  the  criterion  by  which  we  are  to  decide  what  is  and 
what  is  not  properly  a  part  of  divine  revelation,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remind  him  that  there  is  a  proper  and  an  improper 
exercise  of  reason  in  matters  of  religion.  If  a  man  were 
to  say  that  up  in  the  moon  two  and  two  make  five,  we  should 
deny  it  point  blank.  If  he  said  that  in  the  moon  there  is 
a  race  of  men  who  can  fly,  we  should  say.  Possibly ;  the 
thing  is  certainly  not  inconceivable.  This  illustrates  the 
first  prerogative  of  reason,  the  right  to  pronounce  against 
a  statement  which  contradicts  a  necessary  belief.  We  can- 
not believe  a  contradictory  proposition ;  we  cannot  believe 
that  an  event  occurred  without  some  cause  of  its  occurrence. 
We  cannot  believe  that  right  is  wrong  or  that  wrong  is 
right.  Any  book  that  asks  us  to  believe  these  things  asks 
an  impossibility,  asks  us  to  assent  to  unthinkable  proposi- 
tions, and  therefore  cannot  be  from  God.  Again,  the  Bible 
comes  to  us  as  a  revelation.  So  do  other  books — the  Koran, 
for  example.     Why  do  we  accept  the  Bible  and  reject  the 


SUMMAEJ    OF  DOCTRINE.  227 

rest?  B3cansethe  Bihie  gives  evidence  of  being  a  divine 
revelation.  The  mind,  therefore,  must  be  allowed  to  weigh 
the  evidence  which  accredits  the  Bible  and  determine 
whether  it  is  adequate.  To  deny  this  would  be  to  deny 
that  there  is  any  reason  for  believing  one  alleged  revelation 
rather  than  another.  The  rationalist,  however,  wishes  the 
privilege  of  sitting  in  judgment  on  the  contents  of  Scrip- 
ture.    His  position  is  open  to  obvious  objections. 

1.  It  does  not  follow  that  a  doctrine  is  untrue  because  it 
is  incomprehensible.  The  Bible  teaches  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  The  rationalist  denies  it.  It  is  a  contradiction, 
he  says.  But  it  is  not  a  contradiction,  for  the  human  mind 
cannot  believe  a  contiadiction,  and  the  doctrine  of  the 
trinity  is  a  cardinal  one  in  the  Christian's  creed.  Incom- 
prehensible it  undoubtedly  is,  but  this  is  no  argument  against/^ 
it,  unless,  indeed,  the  man  who  makes  it  is  omniscient. 

2.  A  man  has  no  right  to  settle  beforehand  what  God  may 
or  may  not  do,  and  then  condemn  the  Scriptures  because 
they  do  not  harmonize  with  his  view.  God  cannot  do  wrong, 
we  know.  But  what  may  be  wrong  for  us  to  do  may  not 
be  wrong  for  God  to  do.  It  may  be  wrong  for  a  man  to 
chastise  another  man's  child,  though  quite  proper  for  him 
to  punish  his  own.  We  have  no  right  to  kill  a  man ;  it 
does  not  follow,  though,  that  God  has  none.  The  rationalist 
raises  moral  objections  to  the  Bible  because  he  makes  the 
mistake  of  applying  to  God  the  laws  which  were  meant  to 
govern  the  relations  of  men. 

3.  We  must  not  form  our  judgment  of  God  by  the  light 
of  the  Bible,  and  at  the  same  time  criticise  the  Bible  by  our 
idea  of  God.  If  an  Eastern  prince  should  send  us  a  pack- 
age containing  a  letter  and  his  photograph,  it  might  be  well 
enough  to  take  the  necessary  means  of  satisfying  ourselves 
that  the  package  came  from  the  person  in  question.  But 
that  fact  being  ascertained,  we  must  take  the  photograph  as 
a  genuine  p'cture,  even  though  it  should  be  very  unlike 


228  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

what  we  would  have  expected.  Now,  the  Bible  is  a  por- 
trait, if  we  raay  so  speak,  of  God.  We  learn  from  it  that 
God  is  just,  and  that  he  will  take  vengeance  on  those  who 
obey  not  the  gospel  of  his  Son.  It  is  our  business  to  de- 
termine whether  the  Bible  gives  evidence  of  being  sent  to 
us  from  God  ;  but  having  satisfied  ourselves  of  that  fact,  it 
would  be  a  very  foolish  thing  to  reject  any  part  of  it  be- 
cause it  does  not  correspond  with  the  notions  we  had  formed 
of  God. 

II.  The  Church. 

Roman  Catholics  regard  the  Church  as  infallible  and 
her  teachings  as  authoritative.  They  believe  that  the 
Scriptures  are  infallible  and  inspired,  but  deny  that  they 
are  sufficient.  They  say  that  the  Church  is  the  custodian  of 
a  body  of  unwritten  truth  communicated  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles  and  preserved  in  the  form  of  tradition.  But  how 
are  we  to  distinguish  between  true  and  false  traditions? 
Romanists  apply  the  tests  of  catholicity  and  antiquity: 
what  has  always  been  believed,  and  by  all  Christians,  is 
true.  The  peculiar  doctrines  of  Romanism  will  not  meet 
the  requirements  of  this  canon,  however,  and  the  only  way 
in  which  they  can  be  justified  is  to  fall  back  upon  the  in- 
fallibility of  the  Church.  Romanists  claim  that  the  tradi- 
tions are  true  because  endorsed  by  an  infallible  Church. 
Romanism  therefore  stands  or  falls  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church's  infallibility.  Some  say  that  infallibility  resides 
in  the  pope  as  vicar  of  Christ,  and  others  in  the  Church, 
speaking  through  the  majority  of  her  bishops.  A  word  or 
two,  first,  on  the  general  question  of  infallibility: 

1.  Proof  of  infallibility  is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 
impossible,  for  the  appeal  must  be  made  either  to  Scrip- 
ture or  to  tradition.  The  Scripture  cannot  be  cited  to 
prove  the  infallibility  of  the  Church,  for  a  favorite  point 
which   the   Romanists   make    against  Protestants   is  that 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  229 

we  have  do  infallible  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  If 
the  Romanist  is  correct  in  this  argument,  it  applies  with 
equal  force  to  himself.  He  cannot  appeal  to  the  Scriptures 
to  sustain  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  ;  and  if  he  does,  he 
must  assume  that  his  Church  is  infallible  in  order  that  he 
may  have  an  infallible  interpretation  of  those  passages  of 
Scriptures  on  which  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  is  based. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  cannot  appeal  to  tradition,  for  his  be- 
lief that  a  particular  tradition  is  true  depends  upon  the  in- 
fallibility of  the  Church  which  holds  the  tradition.  Ro- 
man Catholic  reasoning  is  proverbially  circular.  The  ap- 
peal is  to  tradition  to  support  infallibility,  and  to  infallibil- 
ity to  certify  tradition. 

2.  The  Church  of  Rome  is  not  infallible,  because  it  con- 
tradicts the  Scriptures  ;  and  the  Scriptures,  it  concedes,  are 
infallible.  The  Bible  teaches  that  only  God  can  forgive 
sins  ;  Rome  says  the  priest  can.  The  Bible  says.  Worship 
God  only  ;  Rome  says,  Worship  the  Virgin  Mary  too.  The 
Bible  says  there  is  one  Mediator ;  Rome  says  every  priest 
is  a  mediator.  The  Bible  says  that  Christ  offered  himself 
once  for  all ;  Rome  pretends  to  repeat  the  sacrifice  in  cele- 
brating the  eucharist.  The  Bible  says  we  are  justified  by 
faith ;  Rome  says  we  are  justified  by  baptism.  If  the 
Church  of  Rome  is  infallible  and  the  Bible  is  infallible,  we 
have  two  infallibilities  contradicting  each  other. 

But  there  are  special  difficulties  connected  with  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  pope  and  the  inftillibility  of  the  bishops  or  of 
general  councils.  The  doctrine  of  the  pope's  infallibility  is 
attended  with  difficulties  like  the  following : 

(1.)  It  is  not  certain  whether  the  infallibility  of  the  pope 
follows  from  the  infallibility  of  the  Church,  or  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church  from  the  infallibility  of  the  pope. 
Archbishop  Manning  holds  the  latter  opinion.  "The  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church  is  not  to  test  the  teaching  of  the  pontiff 

20 


230  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

by  the  assent  of  the  Church,  but  to  take  the  doctrines  of  the 
pontiff  as  the  test  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church."  A  writer 
in  the  Catholic  World  takes  the  other  view,  and  says :  "  The 
infallibility  of  the  pope  is  implicitly  contained  in  and  logic- 
ally concluded  from  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  in  gen- 
eral." *  And  Archbishop  Manning  himself  turns  round  and 
appeals  to  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  to  certify  the  le- 
gitimacy, and  therefore  the  infallibility,  of  the  pope.  He 
saysf  "that  St.  Peter  was  bishop  of  Rome,  .  .  .  that  the 
Council  of  Trent  and  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  are 
oecumenical — that  is, legitimately  celebrated  and  confirmed; 
that  Pius  IX.  is  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  by  legitimate 
election.  These  truths  are  not  revealed,  .  .  .  yet  they  are 
so  necessary  to  the  order  of  faith  that  the  whole  would  be 
undermined  if  they  were  not  infallibly  certain.  But  such 
infallible  certainty  is  impossible  by  means  of  human  history 
and  human  evidence  alone.  It  is  created  only  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  Church." 

(2.)  Some  important  gaps  in  history  must  be  filled  before 
it  can  be  shown  that  the  pope  is  infallible. 

(a.)  It  does  not  appear  in  the  New  Testament  that  Peter 
had  any  primacy  among  the  apostles.  Romanists  base  the 
doctrine  on  Matt.  xvi.  18  :  "  Thou  art  Peter,  and  on  this  rock 
I  will  build  my  Church."  |  We  know,  however,  that  Peter 
did  not  lay  any  claim  to  precedence,  nor  was  any  accorded 
to  him  by  the  other  apostles.  He  writes,  "The  elders  who 
are  among  you  I  exhort,  who  am  also  an  elder."  He  did 
not  preside  at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem.  Paul,  on  one  oc- 
casion, withstood  him  to  the  face,  because  he  was  to  be 
blamed. 

(6.)  It  cannot  be  shown  that  Peter  was  ever  in  Rome. 

*  Catholic  World  for  August,  1871. 

f  Petri  Privilegium. 

X  For  an  exposition  of  this  verse  see  Lange's  Commentary  and 

Notes. 


SmiMARl    OF  DOCTRINE.  231 

(c.)  And  if  it  could,  it  would  not  follow  that  he  had  any 
successors. 

(c?.)  And  if  he  had  successors,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
prove  that  Pope  Pius  IX.  is  the  legitimate  occupant  of  the 
papal  chair. 

(e.)  The  advocates  of  papal  infallibility  are  confronted 
w'ith  the  damagiug  fact  that  the  sixth  general  counciJ, 
A.  D.  680,  anathematized  Pope  Honorius  as  a  heretic. 

The  Gallican  party  in  the  Church  of  Rome  deny  that  the 
pope  is  infallibJe,  but  believe  in  the  infallibility  of  the 
Church — that  is  ^n  say,  they  believe  that  the  decisions  of  a 
majority  of  the  bishops  are  infallible.  This  position,  how- 
ever, is  as  untenable  as  that  of  the.Ul tramontanes  just  no- 
ticed. 

(1.)  It  is  assumed  that  the  "  Church,"  to  whom  promises 
are  given  and  on  whom  privileges  are  conferred,  is  a 
visible  organization,  and  is  composed  of  those  who  are  in. 
subjection  to  the  bishop  of  Rome.  Christ  promised  that 
the  gates  of  hell  should  not  prevail  against  his  Church. 
The  Church  is  said  to  be  his  body,  the  fullness  of  Him  who 
filleth  all  in  all.  Christ  loved  the  Church,  and  gave  him- 
self for  it  that  he  might  sanctify  and  cleanse  it  with  the 
washing  of  water  by  his  blood,  that  he  might  present  it  to 
himself  a  glorious  Church,  not  having  a  spot  or  wrinkle,  or 
any  such  thing,  but  that  it  should  be  holy  and  without 
blemish.  It  cannot  be  shown  that  these  statements  refer  to 
any  visible  organization,  and  far  less  that  that  organization 
is  the  Church  of  Rome.  We  know,  moreover,  that  these 
statements  do  not  refer  to  any  visible  Church;  they  are  triio 
of  no  one  organization  as  such.  They  are  true,  however,  of 
all  believers  as  such,  and  no  organization  has  a  monopoly 
of  them. 

(2.)  The  promises  of  Christ  do  not  imply  infallibility.  It 
is  not  denied  that  the  New  Testament  sometimes  uses  tne 
wcrd   church  to  convey  the  idea  of  visible  organization, 


232  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

though  in  the  passages  which  are  most  relied  on  by  Romai- 
ists  we  know  it  has  not  that  signification.  Oar  Lorn 
evidently  has  referred  to  the  local  organization  in  Matt, 
xviii.  15,  when  he  speaks  of  church  discipline  and  says  : 
"  Whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in 
heaven ;  and  whatsoever  ye  shall  loose  on  earth  shall  be 
loosed  in  heavem"  But  his  promises,  whether  referring  to 
visible  societies  of  Christians  or  to  Christians  as  members 
of  his  invisible  Church,  never  imply  that  those  to  whom 
they  were  made  were  to  be  preserved  from  error. 

(3.)  No  argument  for  the  infallibility  of  the  Church — i.  6., 
the  bishops — can  be  based  on  apostolic  succession. 

It  is  claimed  that  the*  bishops  are  successors  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  have  the  gifts  of  the  apostles.  But  the  New  Tes- 
tament gives  every  evidence  that  the  apostolic  office  was 
special,  and  did  not  survive  when  the  original  twelve  passed 
away.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  had  any  successors, 
and  those  who  claim  apostolic  honors  do  not  have  the 
"signs"  which  accredited  those  whom  Christ  ordained. 
They  cannot  work  miracles,  nor  are  they  inspired,  nor  have 
they  seen  the  Lord.  But  the  exclusive  claims  of  the 
Koman  Catholic  and  the  Anglo-Catholic  communions  rest 
upon  the  absurd  figment  of  apostolic  succession. 

If,  however,  the  Church  is  infallible  because  the  bishops 
are  successors  of  the  apostles,  the  infallibility  of  the  bish- 
ops should  be  analogous  to  that  of  the  apostles.  The 
latter  were  infallible  as  teachers  because  they  were  in- 
spired. Their  infallibility  was  individual  and  not  collect- 
ive. Romanists  do  not  claim  that  each  bishop  is  infallible, 
but  that  a  majority  of  fallible  opinions  in  a  general  council 
amounts  to  an  infallible  decision. 

(4.)  The  Church  of  Rome  is  in  a  dilemma. 

For  if  the  council  was  infallible  which  anathematized 
Pope  Honorius,  the  pope  cannot  be  above  a  general  council, 
nor  can  he  be  infallible.     On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pope  is 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  233 

infallible,  the  council  did  wrong  in  anathematizing  Hono- 
rius,  and  must  be  fallible.  And  yet,  again,  if  a  general 
council  may  be  fallible,  of  what  value  is  the  decision  of 
the  Vatican  council  which  declared  the  pope  to  be  infal- 
lible ? 

In  the  light  of  history,  therefore,  the  claim  of  infallibility 
for  either  pope  or  council  is  ridiculous. 

III.  The  Bible. 

Protestants  deny  the  authority  of  tradition,  and  take  the 
Bible  as  the  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  Is  it  an  in- 
fallible rule?  Let  us  mark  the  steps  which  lead  to  an 
affirmative  answer  to  this  question. 

1.  The  historic  credibility  of  the  Bible  is  a  settled  ques- 
tion. The  books  of  Moses  were  written  by  Moses.  The 
Gospels  are  genuine  biographies,  and  were  written  by  the 
men  whose  names  they  bear.  What  is  true  of  the  Penta- 
teuch and  of  the  Gospels  is  true  of  all  the  other  books  of 
the  Bible.  The  Scriptures  have  been  subjected  to  the  se- 
verest criticism,  and  their  authenticity  has  been  placed  be- 
yond question.  The  trustworthiness  of  the  Scriptures  as 
literary  documents  we  therefore  take  as  granted. 

2.  The  Bible  gives  us  a  great  deal  of  information  respect- 
ing God  and  his  relations  to  men,  which  we  find  nowhere 
else.  The  most  cursory  study  of  it  will  convince  us  of  this. 
We  find  in  it  accounts  of  miracles  which  God  did,  and 
which  show  the  close  relation  subsisting  between  God  and 
his  covenant  people.  Then,  the  Bible  contains  accounts  of 
communications  from  God  to  men,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  extended.  A  large  part  of  the  Old  Testament  con- 
sists of  prophetic  utterances  prefaced  with  the  expression : 
"Thus  saith  the  Lord."  And,  finally,  the  Bible  contains 
doctrines  which  carry  on  their  face  the  evidences  of  divine 
authorship,  because  they  meet  so  exactly  the  wants  of  the 
human  heart  and  are  in  such  strong  contrast  with  all  hu- 

20* 


234  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

man  efforts  to  supply  them.    The  doctrine  of  expiation  by 
an  incarnate  God  may  be  taken  as  an  example. 

A  large  part  of  the  Bible  being  a  written  account  of  what 
God  did  and  said,  we  may  properly  say  that  it  contains  the 
word  of  God. 

3.  The  whole  Bible  is  God's  message.  This  is  another 
step  in  advance.  The  Bible  was  not  written  simply  be- 
cause it  occurred  to  several  writers  to  put  on  record  the  facts 
in  their  possession  or  to  reduce  to  writing  their  religious 
sentiments.  God  designed  it  to  be  an  authorized  message 
from  him  to  men.  Several  considerations  point  to  this  con- 
clusion. The  official  standing  of  some  of  the  writers — Mo- 
ses, for  instance — would  bespeak  official  value  for  what  they 
wrote.  And  then,  the  Bible  being  the  only  means  of 
making  known  the  way  of  salvation,  we  may  presume  that 

\  it  was  designed  to  be  an  official  communication.  For,  if  it 
\\  was  not,  there  was  no  official  communication,  and  we  are 
left  to  believe  that,  although  the  scheme  of  redemption  was 
of  sufficient  importance  to  engage  the  thought  of  God,  it  is 
due  to  accident  that  an  account  of  it  has  been  preserved. 
Besides,  the  Bible  is  an  organism.  The  several  books  stand 
in  designed  relation  to  one  body  of  truth,  and  the  whole  body 
is  animated  by  the  same  spirit. 

Parts  of  the  Bible  we  know  were  written  by  express  com- 
mand of  God — the  Pentateuch,  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah, 
the  Apocalypse,  for  example.  The  books  of  Moses  are  fre- 
quently quoted  as  the  law  of  the  Lord.  Christ  referred 
to  the  Old  Testament  as  authoritative.  Peter  says  that  the 
things  which  were  written  aforetime  were  written  for  our 
learning.  The  repeated  occurrence  of  expressions  like  "  It 
is  written,"  "  What  saith  the  Scripture,"  "  The  Scripture 
saith,"  shows  that  writers  of  the  New  Testament  regarded  the 
Old  Testament  as  a  divine  message. 

4.  The  Bible  is  infallible.  We  should  expect  that  God 
would  protect  his  message  against  the  errors  which  are  in^ 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.        '  235 

cident  to  mere  human  authorship.  We  should  naturally 
suppose  that  no  unauthorized  books  would  be  allowed  a  place 
in  the  sacred  canon.  The  references  to  the  Old  Testament 
which  we  find  in  the  New  confirm  this  judgment.  All  the 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament  are  put  on  the  same  level.  No 
difference  of  rank  or  value  is  recognized.  They  are  all  em- 
braced in  the  same  titles,  and  the  titles  indicate  their  sacred 
character :  The  Scriptures,  The  Holy  Scriptures,  The  Hal- 
lowed Writings,  The  Oracles  of  God. 

The  greatest  deference  is  paid  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
writers  of  the  New.  Incidental  circumstances  in  the  life  of 
our  Lord  are  spoken  of  as  fulfillments  of  prophecy.  This 
cannot  be  accounted  for  on  any  other  supposition  than  that 
the  evangelists  believed  in  the  verbal  infallibility  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Our  Lord  himself  asserts  the  infallibility 
of  the  Old  Testament :  "  The  Scriptures  must  be  fulfilled." 
"  The  Scri^Dtures  cannot  be  broken."  "All  things  must  be 
fulfilled  which  are  written  in  the  law  of  Moses  and  in  the 
Prophets  and  in  the  Psalms  concerning  me."  Moreover,  the 
verbal  references  to  the  Old  Testament  which  we  find  in  the 
writings  of  Paul  prove  that  he  and  the  Jewish  people  gen- 
erally believed  in  the  verbal  infallibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Unless  the  infallibility  of  Scripture  extended  to  its 
words,  the  apostle  would  not  have  been  justified  in  making  a 
single  word  the  premise  of  a  syllogism.  He  did  so,  how- 
ever, in  more  instances  than  one,  and  we  must  conclude  that 
Paul  reasoned  falsely  or  that  the  Old  Testament  is  verbally 
infallible. 

5.  The  Old  Testament  is  declared  to  be  of  divine  author- 
ship. 

Passages  are  cited  from  Scripture  as  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Heb.  iii.  7  :  "  Wherefore,  as  the  Holy  Ghost 
.saith.  To-day  if  ye  will  hear  his  voice,  harden  not  your 
hearts."  Acts  iv.  24  :  "And  when  they  heard  that,  they 
lifted   up  their  voice  to  God  with  one   accord,  and   said. 


236  •         PREPARING    TO    VEACH. 

Lord,  thou  art  God,  which  hast  made  heaven,  and  earth,  and 
the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is  ;  who,  hy  the  mouth  of  thy  ser- 
vant  David  hast  said,  Why  did  the  heathen  rage,  and  the  peo- 
ple imagine  a  vain  thing?"  Acts  i.  16 :  "And  in  those  days 
Peter  stood  up  .  .  .  and  said,  .  .  .  Men  and  brethren,  this 
scripture  must  needs  have  been  fulfilled,  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  the  mouth  of  David  spake  before  concerning  Judas." 
2  Peter  i.  20 :  "  Knowing  this  first,  that  no  prophecy  of  the 
Fcripture  is  of  any  private  interpretation,  for  the  prophecy 
(".ame  not  in  old  time  of  the  will  of  man,  but  holy  men  of 
old  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost."  2  Tim. 
iii.  15,  16 :  "And  that  from  a  child  thou  hast  known  the 
holy  scriptures,  which  are  able  to  make  thee  wise  unto  salva- 
tion through  faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus.  All  Scripture 
is  given  by  inspiration  of  God." 

"  The  New  Testament  canonizes  the  Old,  the  incarnate 
Word  sets  his  seal  on  the  written  word.  The  incar- 
nate Word  is  God,  therefore  the  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  authenticated  by  God  himself."*  It  will  not 
require  much  evidence  to  convince  one  of  the  inspiration  of 
the  New  Testament  who  believes  in  that  of  the  Old.  It 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  it  evidently  forms  part 
of  God's  revelation  and  is  necessary  to  the  full  exhibi- 
tion of  the  gospel  scheme.  Our  Lord,  however,  promised 
the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  to  guide  the  apostles:  "The 
Holy  Ghost  shall  teach  you  in  the  same  hour  what  ye 
ought  to  say."  Luke  xii.  12  "For  it  is  not  ye  that  speak, 
but  the  Holy  Ghost."  Mark  xiii.  11.  And  Paul  says  (1 
Cor.  ii.  13),  "  Which  things  also  we  speak  not  in  words 
which  man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
teacheth."  If  the  apostles  were  preserved  against  error  in 
their  oral  utterances,  how  much  more  may  we  suppose  them 
to  have  been  inspired  in  >vriting  what  was  to  shape  the 
Church's  faith  in  all  time!  We  know,  however,  that  Peter 
*  Wordsworth  on  the  Canon,  p.  51,  Am.  Ed. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  237 

placed  the  writings  of  Paul  on  a  level  with  the  inspired 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament :  "  Even  as  our  beloved 
brother  Paul  also,  according  to  the  wisdom  given  unto  him, 
hath  written  unto  you,  as  also  in  all  his  epistles,  speaking  in 
them  of  these  things ;  in  which  are  some  things  hard  to  be 
understood,  which  they  that  are  unlearned  and  unsta- 
ble WTest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  Scriptures,  unto  their  own 
destruction."  2  Peter  iii.  15-17. 

The  Bible,  therefore,  not  only  contains  the  word  of  God, 
but  it  is  the  word  of  God. 

It  is  infiillible  because  it  is  inspired.  The  Holy  Ghost  in- 
fluenced the  sacred  writers  to  such  an  extent  that  what  they 
said,  God  said.  His  influence,  however,  did  not  destroy 
their  individuality  or  abridge  their  liberty.  It  made  them 
infallible  as  teachers,  but  not  perfect  as  Christians.  Inspi- 
ration is  one  thing,  sanctification  another. 

The  Bible  is  a  human  book ;  it  is  also  a  divine  book.  It 
had  human  authors ;  it  has  a  divine  Author.  Moses  wrote 
history ;  David  wrote  psalms ;  Paul  wrote  letters.  Sup- 
pose there  were  no  inspiration  guiding  these  writers.  Moses 
might  still  have  remembered  his  interviews  with  God,  and 
have  written  them  out  with  tolerable  accuracy.  He  might 
still  have  been  a  trustworthy  historian  of  the  Exodus, 
though  we  could  not  feel  sure  that  he  had  incorporated  no 
errors  in  his  books.  David,  being  a  religious  man,  might 
have  written  pious  psalms,  as  religious  men  have  since  done, 
but  he  might  have  put  wrong  sentiments  in  them  too ;  for 
good  as  he  was,  he  was  far  from  perfect.  Paul  might  have 
written  his  doctrinal  Epistles,  and  there  would  have  been 
good  reason  for  believing  that  Paul  knew  what  was  true  and 
what  was  false.  But  Paul  may  nevertheless  have  had 
some  wrong  views,  and  we  could  not  tell  but  what  these  views 
were  expressed  in  his  letters.  The  Bible  might  still  contain 
a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  regarding  God  and  oui 
relations  to  him,  but  it  w^ould  not  be  infallible. 


238  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

But  God  is  also  the  author  of  Scripture.  God  writes  his- 
tory. The  history  must  tlierefore  be  true  in  every  detail. 
God  writes  psalms.  The  psalms  must  therefore  express- 
proper  religious  feelings.  God  writes  letters.  The  letters 
can  give  no  unwise  counsel,  contain  no  false  reasoning, 
propagate  no  false  doctrine. 

The  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  is  one 
of  practical  and  fundamental  importance. 


LESSOR  III. 


SIN. 
The  whole  Bible  is  summed  up  in  two  words :  Sin  and 
Salvation.  It  is  with  the  first  of  these  that  we  have  now  to 
deal.  The  subject  is  very  important;  for  the  conclusions  we 
reach  regarding  sin  will  affect  our  opinions  in  respect  to  the 
atonement.  It  is  also  very  wide.  In  the  discussion  of  it 
four  distinct  inquiries  arise,  each  of  which  has  been  the 
subject  of  many  volumes  and  much  debate.  These  inquir- 
ies concern:  (1.)  The  nature  of  sin.  (2.)  Inability.  (3.) 
Original  sin.     (4.)  Adamic  relation. 

I.  Nature  of  Sin. 

Is  sin  a  misfortune,  or  is  it  a  fault?  Is  it  a  disease  which 
ensures  suffering,  or  is  it  an  offence  which  deserves  punish- 
ment? Is  salvation  cure  or  pardon?  Our  Shorter  Catechism 
says:  "Sin  is  any  want  of  conformity  unto,  or  transgression 
of,  the  law  of  God."  This  statement  acct  rds  with  the  voice 
of  conscience  and  the  word  of  God.  ^i  olatioii  of  law  is 
implied  in  the  idea  of  doing  wrong.  Sense  of  guilt  is  the 
feeling  that  punishment  is  deserved.  A  crime  may  prove 
a  blunder,  for  it  may  cost  a  man  his  liberty;  and  being  a 
blunder,  he" may  regret  that  he  committed  it.     But  this  is  a 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  239 

very  different  feeliiiLC  from  that  wliieh  a  man  entertains 
Avhen  lie  realizes  that  he  did  Avrong  and  deserves  punish- 
ment. Punisliment  may  have  a  very  salutary  effect  npon 
the  criminal,  or  it  may  deter  others  from  committing  a  sim- 
ihir  offence.  But  neither  the  reformatory  nor  the  deter- 
rent element  of  punishment  exhausts  the  idea  which  the 
Avord  suggests.  We  feel  that  justice  requires  that  the  of- 
fender  shall  suffer — that  he  deserves  to  suffer. 

If  we  turn  to  the  Bible,  we  shall  find  that  sin  is  spoken 
of  as  related  to  law,  Man's  first  sin  was  disobedience.  The 
relation  subsisting  between  God  and  man,  even  when  man 
was  innocent,  was  that  of  ruler  and  ruled — of  sovereign  and 
subject.  Great  injustice  is  done  the  book  of  Genesis  when 
men  regard  God  exclusively  as  our  Father,  and  forget  he 
is  our  King.  The  nature  of  sin  is  clearly  seen  in  God's 
treatment  of  it.  The  pain  which  the  child  suffers  when  he 
burns  his  finger  is  not  punishment,  nor  is  its  removal  par- 
don. Sin  is  always  spoken  of,  however,  as  being  punished 
or  pardoned.  The  suffering  which  follows  it  is  a  judicial 
infliction.  Confession  of  sin  presupj)oses  this.  AVe  pray 
for  forgiveness,  not  for  cure.  The  heathen  are  proven  to 
be  under  condemnation  though  they  never  had  the  law  of 
Moses;  they  are  a  law  unto  themselves,  and  are  judged  on 
the  ground  that  they  violated  the  law  written  on  the  heart. 

"  For  when  the  Gentiles,  which  have  not  the  la\v,  do  by 
nature  the  things  contained  in  the  law,  these  having  not 
the  law,  are  a  law  unto  themselves.  Which  show  the  work 
of  the  law  written  in  their  hearts,  their  conscience  also 
bearing  witness,  and  their  thoughts  the  meanwhile  accusing, 
or  else  excusing  one  another."  Bom.  ii.  14,  15. 

"  Sin  is  the  transgression  of  the  law."   1  John  iii.  4. 

Sin  exposes  us  to  punishment.  The  punishment  of  sin 
is  death — death  temporal,  death  spiritual,  death  eternal. 
Salvation  must  mean,  therefore,  deliverance  from  condem- 
nation.    It  may  incl'^de  more  than  this;  it  does,  as  we  shall 


240  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

see,  but  it  must  assure  us  of  pardon,  or  it  is  not  salvation 
The  word  used  to  express  the  idea  of  exposure  to  punish- 
ment is  guilt.  A  religion  which  does  not  tell  us  how  we 
may  be  free  from  guilt  does  us  no  good.  It  may  have 
many  excellencies,  it  may  inculcate  pure  morals,  but  it 
leaves  us  under  condemnation. 

II.  Inability. 

All  men  sin.  They  have  all  gone  out  of  the  way.  There 
is  none  righteous,  no,  not  one.  If  we  say  we  have  no  sin, 
we  deceive  ourselves,  and  the  truth  is  not  in  us.  We  begin 
to  sin  when  we  begin  to  speak.  As  soon  as  children  per- 
form rational  acts  they  show  signs  of  sinful  dispositions. 
They  go  astray  as  soon  as  they  be  born,  speaking  lies. 

Sin  is  a  tyrant.  Even  Christians  are  not  altogether  free 
from  its  dominion.  "  I  delight  in  the  law  of  God  after  the 
inward  man,  but  I  see  another  law  in  my  members,  warring 
against  the  law  of  my  mind,  and  bringing  me  into  captivity 
to  the  law  of  sin  which  is  in  my  members."  Rom.  vii.  22, 
23. 

How  is  the  universality  of  sin  to  be  explained?  How  is 
its  power  to  be  accounted  for?  There  are  three  answers: 
The  Pelagian,  the  Semi-Pelagian,  and  the  Augustinian. 

The  Pelagian  says  that  man  is  well,  that  he  has  full 
ability  to  do  all  that  is  required  of  him,  and  that  sin  is  due 
to  the  effect  that  he  exercises  the  power  of  a  free  agent  and 
chooses  to  sin. 

This  is  contradicted  by  conscience,  and  opposed  to  the 
Bible.  We  know  that  we  ought  to  do  what  it  is  out  of 
our  power  to  do.  Paul  said  he  could  not  do  the  things  he 
would.  The  drunkard  knows  he  ought  to  be  sober,  but  he 
is  the  slave  of  appetite.  Besides,  it  does  not  explain  the 
fact  that  all  men  do  sin  to  say  that  they  can  sin.  The  Pela- 
gian sees  the  tree  of  humanity  bearing  evil  fruit,  but  fails 
to  apply  the  principle  flemished  by  our  Lord. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  241 

The  Semi-Pelagian  says  that  man  is  sick  and  needs  di- 
vine assistance,  though  he  believes  that  he  may  repent  of 
his  sins  and  turn  to  God  under  the  influence  of  persuasion, 
and  "without  divine  influence.  And  it  must  be  confessed 
that  he  can  repent  and  believe  if  he  is  disposed  to  do  so. 
The  difficulty  is.  however,  that  he  has  no  disposition  to  re- 
pent and  believe,  and  will  have  none  until  influenced  by 
the  Spirit  of  God.     This  is  the  opinion  of  the  third  class. 

The  Augustinian  believes  that  man  is  dead,  and  spiritu- 
ally can  do  nothing  good.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  our  Con- 
fession: "From  this  original  corruption,  whereby  we  are 
utterly  indisposed,  disabled  and  made  opposite  to  all  good, 
and  wholly  inclined  to  all  evil,  do  proceed  all  actual  trans- 
gressions." chap,  vi.,  §4.  Again,  "Man,  by  his  fall  into  a 
state  of  sin,  hath  wholly  lost  all  ability  of  will  to  any 
spiritual  good  accompanying  salvation  ;  so  as  a  natural 
man,  being  altogether  averse  from  that  good  and  dead  in 
sin,  is  not  able  by  his  own  strength  to  convert  himself  or 
prepare  himself  thereunto."   chap,  ix.,  §3. 

This  doctrine  we  believe  to  be  true — 

(1.)  Because  it  serves  best  to  explain  the  universality  of 
sin  and  its  controlling  power. 

(2.)  Because  faith  and  repentance  are  spoken  of  in  Scrip- 
ture as  the  gifts  of  God : 

"By  grace  are  ye  saved  through  faith,  and  that  not  of 
yourselves:  it  is  the  gift  of  God."  Epli.  ii.  8.  "For  unto 
you  it  is  given  in  behalf  of  Christ  not  only  to  believe  in 
him,  but  also  to  suffer  for  his  sake."  Phil.  i.  29.  *'Then 
hath  God  also  to  the  Gentiles  granted  repentance  unto  life." 
Acts  xi.  18.  "If  God  peradventure  will  give  them  repent- 
ance to  the  acknowledging  of  the  truth."  2  Tim.  ii.  25. 

(3.)  Because  the  doctrine  is  more  or  less  directly  afiirmed 
in  the  Scriptures: 

"  No  man  can  come  to  me  except  the  Father  who  hath  sent 
me  draw  him."  John  vi.  44.    "And  you  hath  he  quickened 

21 


242  PREPABING   TO   TEACH. 

"who  were  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins."  Eph.  ii.  1.  "The 
carnal  mind  is  enmity  against  God,  and  is  not  subject  to  the 
law  of  God,  neither  indeed  can  be."  Rom.  viii.  7.  "  The 
natural  man  discerneth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit  of  God, 
for  they  are  foolishness  unto  him,  neither  can  he  know  them 
because  they  are  spiritually  discerned."  1  Cor.  ii.  14. 

It  is  clear  therefore  that  we  need  more  than  pardon. 
Salvation  must  deliver  us  from  the  guilt,  and  also  from  the 
power,  of  sin.  It  must  change  our  legal  condition,  and 
also  transform  our  character.  The  one  is,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  work  of  Christ,  the  other  that  of  the  Spirit. 

III.  Original  Sin. 

A  man  may  say:  "I  admit  that  I  am  so  constituted  that 
I  must  certainly  sin.  But  am  I  under  condemnation  on 
account  of  the  corruption  of  my  nature,  from  which  actual 
trangression  proceeds  ?"  Our  standards  answer  this  question 
affirmatively.  The  Catechism  calls  the  corruption  of  our 
nature  "  original  sin,"  and  the  Confession  (ch.  vi.)  says : 
"  Every  sin,  both  original  and  actual,  being  a  transgres- 
sion of  the  righteous  law  of  God,  and  contrary  thereunto, 
doth  in  its  own  nature  bring  guilt  upon  the  sinner,"  etc. 

This  is  true — 1.  Because  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
account  for  our  being  responsible  for  actual  transgression, 
if  we  are  not  responsible  for  the  corrupt  nature  from  which 
all  actual  transgressions  do  proceed.  The  readiest  way  of 
explaining  our  responsibility  for  sins  which  our  inability 
rendered  certain  is  to  suppose  that  we  are  accountable  for 
our  inability. 

2.  Because  it  is  involved  in  our  idea  of  character.  The 
fact  that  a  bad  act  is  the  indication  of  a  wicked  heart 
makes  it  all  the  more  heinous  in  our  sight.  So  far  from  a 
bad  disposition  being  an  apology  for  malicious  conduct,  the 
disposition  itself  is  the  object  of  our  reprehension. 

Moreover,  we  are  conscious  of  and  pray  to  be  delivered 


SU3IMABY  OF  DOCTRINE.  243 

from  evil  thoughts  and  feelings  which  are  not  under  our 
control,  but  which  have  moral  quality,  nevertheless. 

3.  Because  sins  of  omission  are  heinous  as  well  as  sins 
of  commission.  We  are  responsible  not  only  for  doing 
what  we  ought  not  to  have  done,  but  for  not  doing  what  we 
ought  to  have  done.  We  ought  to  be  perfectly  holy,  and  we 
are  not,  and  cannot  be.  This  cannot  be  explained  without 
supposing  that  we  are  responsible  for  our  corrupt  nature.* 

4.  Because  physical  death  is  part  of  the  penalty  of  sin, 
and  infants  die  who  have  not  been  guilty  of  actual  trans- 
gression. ''And  so  death  passed  upon  all  men,  for  that  all 
have  sinned."  Rora.  v.  12. 

5.  Because  the  Scriptures  plainly  teach  it :  We  are 
by  nature  the  children  of  wrath  even  as  others.  "  For  I 
was  born  in  iniquity;  and  in  sin  did  my  mother  conceive 
me."  Ps.  li.  5.  "  Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs 
of  thistles  ?  Even  so  every  good  tree  bringeth  forth  good 
fruit ;  but  a  corrupt  tree  bringeth  forth  evil  fruit.  A  good 
tree  cannot  bring  forth  evil  fruit,  neither  can  a  corrupt 
tree  bring  forth  good  fruit."  Matt.  vii.  16-19.f 

IV.  Adamic  Eelation. 

But  how  do  we  become  responsible  for  the  corruption  of 
our  nature  ?  We  find  the  solution  in  the  fifMi  chapter  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  There  it  is  distinctly  stated  that 
the  cause  of  our  transgression  was  Adam's  sin.  By  one 
man's  disobedience  many  were  made  sinners.  By  the 
oflTence  of  one  judgment  came  upon  all  men  unto  con- 
demnation. 

*  See  Shedd  on  the  sin  of  omission,  in  "  Sermons  to  the  Natural 
Man." 

t  These  verses  were  his  [Augustine's]  weapon  against  the  shallow 
Pelagian  scheme,  which  would  look  at  men's  deeds  apart  from  the 
living  root  in  man  out  of  which  they  grew,  and  suppose  that  man's 
unaided  will  is  capable  of  good. — Aljord,in  loc. 


244  PRE  PARING   TO   TEACH. 

Our  Catechism  says :  "  The  covenant  being  made  with 
Adam  not  only  for  himself,  but  for  his  posterity,  all 
mankind  descending  from  him  by  ordinary  generation, 
sinned  in  him,  and  fell  with  him,  in  his  first  transgression." 
In  the  explanation  of  this  relation  there  is  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  divines  in  our  Church;  some  hold 
that  Adam,  being  a  sinner,  begat  children  in  his  own  like- 
ness— that  is  to  say,  with  corrupt  natures ;  that,  having  cor- 
rupt natures,  they  are  under  condemnation  on  that  account. 
Others  hold  that  there  is  a  oneness  of  relation  between  Adam 
and  his  posterity,  so  that  what  he  did  they  did,  and  what  he 
suffered  they  shared.  This  oneness  is  by  some  held  to  be  a 
realistic  oneness — that  is,  a  oneness  in  the  sense  that  we  were 
actually  in  Adam  when  he  sinned,  and  actually  committed 
the  offence.  By  others  it  is  held  to  be  a  federal  oneness — that 
is  to  say,  that  Adam  was  the  representative  of  the  race,  and 
what  he  did  was  accounted  as  being  done  by  his  posterity. 
Spiritual  death  or  inability  is  alike  in  the  case  of  Adam  and 
his  posterity  the  punishment  of  sin  as  well  as  sin  itself. 

The  inquirer  will  naturally  ask  how  it  can  be  that  the 
fortunes  of  the  race  have  been  staked  upon  the  conduct  of 
one.  Our  inability  to  answer  this  question  does  not 
affect  the  fact  that  this  is  nevertheless  the  teaching  of 
Scripture.  It  is  our  duty  to  accept  the  truth  on  God's  au- 
thority. This,  however,  may  be  said — that,  considering  the 
way  in  which  the  race  is  perpetuated,  no  fairer  probation 
can  be  conceived  than  that  which  the  human  race  had  in 
Adam,  who  was  created  in  full  possession  of  his  faculties 
and  in  the  image  of  God.  It  is  a  blessed  thought,  moreover, 
that  where  sin  abounded  grace  did  much  more  abound. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  245 


LESSOJf  IV. 

THE  ATONEMENT. 

Sin  has  been  attended  with  two  ruinous  results.  It  has 
exposed  the  race  to  condemnation,  and  it  has  debased  its 
nature.  Salvation  is  therefore  a  twofold  deliverance. 
This  is  beautifully  expressed  in  Toplady's  lines : 

"Be  of  sin  the  double  cure, 
Cleanse  me  from  its  guilt  and  power." 

Now,  all  who  profess  to  be  Christians  regard  Jesus  as  the 
Saviour.  "What  do  we  mean,  however,  when  we  say  that 
Jesus  is  the  Saviour  ?  What  has  he  done  to  justify  the 
use  of  this  name  ?  Different  answers  are  given  to  these 
questions.  They  may  all  be  grouped,  however,  under  two 
heads,  the  Socinian  and  the  sacrificial  views.  These  two 
are  the  poles  apart.  They  are  so  different  as  really  to  con- 
stitute two  different  religions.  According  to  the  one  view, 
Christ  is  our  Saviour  because  he  influences  us  by  his  ex- 
ample, teaching,  sympathy  or  otherwise,  to  lead  a  better 
life.  Similarly,  a  drunkard  might  call  a  man  his  saviour  * 
by  whose  influence  he  was  induced  to  become  sober  and 
abstinent. 

The  other  view  regards  Christ  as  our  Saviour  because  he 
died  as  a  sacrifice  for  our  sins.  It  considers  the  effect  of 
Christ's  work  to  be  mainly  that  of  expiating  our  guilt  by 
his  own  death,  and  so  delivering  us  from  condemnation. 

I.  The  Socinian  View. 

Under  this  head  are  classed  all  who  hold  that  the  saving 

work  of  Christ  consists  in  the  effect  produced  upon  our 

personal  conduct,  and  who  ignore  or  deny  the  fact  that  his 

death  is  the  ground  of  pardon.     It  includes,  we  regret  to 

say,  some  who  believe  in  the  supreme  divinity  of  Christ, 

though  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  men  can  believe  that  Christ 
21* 


246  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

is  God,  and  at  the  same  time  take  this  low  view  of  his 
work. 

1.  Humanitarians  say  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man.  He 
iaught  and  practiced  a  pure  moi»ality.  He  met  death  in 
the  attempt  to  overthrow  a  false  system.  He  bore  witness 
to  the  truth,  and  died  a  martyr.  This  is  simple  enough, 
certainly ;  and  if  true,  the  wonder  is  that  Paul  ever  said, 
"Great  is  the  mystery  of  godliness."  There  would  be  no 
mystery  about  it. 

2.  Others  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  Jesus,  though  a  crea- 
ture, was  far  above  every  other  creature,  that  he  existed 
before  he  became  incarnate,  that  he  came  to  bear  God's 
message,  to  disclose  the  doctrine  of  immortality,  to  preach 
a  pure  faith  and  be  an  example  of  a  spotless  life.  His 
death  was  didactic.  It  was  to  teach  us  the  lesson  of  self- 
sacrifice,  and  was  that  of  a  hero. 

3.  Some  believe  in  the  supreme  divinity  of  Christ,  but 
still  believe  that  his  saving  influence  consisted  in  supplying 
us  with  new  motives  for  living  a  better  life.  He  not  only 
became  incarnate  that  he  might  be  an  embodiment  of  per- 
fect manhood,  but  he  entered  into  partnership  with  us  in 
the  trials  of  life  in  order  that  he  might  win  us  by  his  sym- 
pathy, and  induce  us  to  leave  our  sins  and  lead  a  holy  life. 
His  death  was  a  dramatic  exhibition  of  his  sympathy. 

4.  And  there  is  a  class  of  mystical  thinkers  who  main- 
tain, with  those  already  mentioned,  the  subjective  view  of 
Christ's  saving  work,  though  they  hold  that  the  improved 
conduct  of  the  Christian  is  not  the  effect  of  example,  and 
is  not  the  result  of  moral  suasion,  but  is  the  result  of  a  par- 
taking, in  some  mysterious  way,  of  the  life  of  Christ. 

Differing  though  these  classes  do  from  one  another,  we 
can  see  at  a  glance  that  they  all  identify  salvation  with 
personal  holiness,  or,  rather,  with  reformation.  The  objec- 
tions, therefore,  which  follow  are  to  be  urged  against  them 
all. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  247 

i.  The  Socinian  view  assumes  that  God  will  pardon  meu 
on  condition  of  repentance  and  reformation.  This  is  alto- 
gether contrary  to  Scripture.  It  teaches  that  condemna- 
tion is  universal.  "Judgment  hath  come  upon  all  men  to 
condemnation,"  that  every  mouth  may  be  stopped,  and  all 
the  world  become  guilty  before  God.  This  condemnation 
i?  everlasting,  for  it  stands  in  contrast  with  the  everlast- 
ing life  which  Christ  gives ;  and  those  who  reject  that  shall 
never  see  life,  but  the  wrath  of  God  abideth  on  them. 
From  this  condemnation  it  is  impossible  for  men  to  be  de- 
livered by  works  of  the  law.  "  Therefore,  by  works  of  the 
law  shall  no  flesh  be  justified  in  his  sight.'' 

2.  This  view  identifies  salvation  wdth  good  conduct,  but 
makes  no  provision  for  our  deliverance  from  the  bondage 
of  sin. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  if  we  are  holy  God  will  forgive 
\xh.  How  are  we  to  be  holy  ?  Men  do  not  love  holiness ; 
they  are,  by  virtue  of  their  depravity,  "  made  opposite  to 
all  good."  Good  example  and  a  high  standard  will  not 
influence  men  who  are  dead  in  sin.  Nor  will  they  be  moved 
by  Christ's  sympathy.  The  view  under  notice  fails  to  do 
justice  either  to  the  guilt  or  to  the  power  of  sin. 

3.  It  does  not  explain  the  fact  that  salvation  is  so  con- 
stantly referred  to  Christ's  death.  If  the  good  we  derive 
from  Christ  is  his  example,  or  his  doctrine,  or  his  sympathy, 
it  is  singular  that  the  sacred  writers  refer  so  constantly  to 
his  death.  We  should  expect  them  to  say  as  little  about 
the  cross  as  those  do  who  preach  the  views  to  which  we  are 
now  alluding.  On  the  contrary,  Jesus  Christ  and  him  cru- 
cified was  the  theme  of  apostolic  preaching. 

4.  But  these  opinions  in  regard  to  the  work  of  Christ  are 
false  because  they  are  in  conflict  with  the  passages  which 
have  a  sacrificial  imjDort.  These  may  be  more  properly 
alluded  to,  however,  under  the  next  view,  to  which  we  now 
pass. 


248  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

II.  The  Sacrificial  View. 

The  view  which  we  are  now  to  consider  embraces  all  those 
who  hold  that  the  death  of  Christ  was  a  sacrifice,  on  account 
of  which  God  pardons  sin  and  receives  us  into  his  favor. 
There  is  room,  of  course,  for  a  difference  of  opinion  in  re- 
gard to  the  exact  relation  in  which  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
stands  to  our  salvation.  But  with  this  we  are  not  at  pres- 
ent concerned. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  those  who  believe 
in  the  sacrificial  character  of  Christ's  death  do  not  hold  in 
less  esteem  than  the  advocates  of  the  Socinian  view  his  ex- 
ample, teaching  and  sympathy.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
through  the  benefits  which  flow  from  Christ's  sacrifice  that 
we  are  able  to  appreciate  Christ's  example,  to  improve  un- 
der his  teaching,  or  to  be  affected  by  his  exhibition  of  sym- 
pathy. 

The  view  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made  is  seri- 
ously false.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  be  imposed 
upon  by  theories  which,  though  they  retain  orthodox 
phraseology,  are  in  radical  opposition  to  the  gospel.  A 
theory  which  denies  that  Christ  is  the  propitiation  for  our 
sin,  and  that  we  have  redemption  through  his  blood,  is  not 
the  gospel  of  Christ.  The  sacrificial  character  of  Christ's 
death  will  appear : 

1.  From  the  fact  that  our  salvation  is  so  constantly  re- 
ferred to  his  death.  It  is  his  death  which  he  would  have 
us  remember  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
bread  represents  his  body,  "  broken  for  us ;"  the  wine  his 
blood,  which  was  "  shed  for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins." 
We  are  "reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son."  "We 
have  redemption  through  his  blood."  "  Christ  died  for  the 
ungodly."  These  passages  are  unmeaning  if  Christ  saves 
by  moral  suasion  or  force  of  good  example.  They  are  per- 
fectly plain,  however,  if  his  death  was  an  expiatory  oflTering. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  249 

The  Jews  were  accustomed  to  a  sacrificial  system ;  and 
when  Jesus  was  spoken  of  as  the  Lamb  of  God  who  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world,  they  saw  the  reference  at  once  to 
the  sacrifice  of  the  lamb  without  blemish  which  the  law  of 
Moses  ordained. 

2.  Passages  abound  in  Scripture  which  teach  that  Christ 
redeemed  us.  "  We  are  redeemed  by  the  precious  blood  of 
Christ  as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish."  "  Christ  hath  re- 
deemed us  to  God  by  his  blood."  "  \ye  are  bought  with  a 
price."  Christ  said  that  he  came  to  give  "  his  life  a  ransom 
for  many." 

3.  Christ  is  a  priest,  and  a  priest,  moreover, "  who  needeth 
not  daily,  as  those  high  priests,  to  offer  up  sacrifice  first  for 
his  own  sins,  and  then  for  the  people's,  for  this  he  did  once 
when  he  offered  up  himself."  "  For  if  the  blood  of  bulls 
and  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer  sprinkling  the  un- 
clean, sanctifieth  to  the  purifying  of  the  flesh,  how  much 
more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  through  the  eternal 
Spirit  offered  himself  without  spot  unto  God,  purge  your 
consciences  from  dead  works  to  serve  the  living  God  ?"  Heb. 
ix.  13,  14. 

4.  Christ  is  called  a  Sacrifice.  He  is  said  to  have  given 
himself  "  an  offering  and  a  sacrifice  to  God  for  a  sweet 
smelling  savor."  "Christ  was  once  offered  to  bear  the  sins 
of  many."  "  He  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins."  "  He  was 
made  sin  for  us  who  knew  no  sin."  "  He  bore  our  sins  in 
his  own  body  on  the  tree."  "  The  Lord  hath  laid  upon  him 
the  iniquity  of  us  all." 

5.  If  Christ  was  a  sacrifice,  the  teachings  of  the  Bible 
are  consistent.  If  he  was  not,  they  cannot  be  explained. 
And  this  constitutes  a  very  strong  argument. 

Those  who  say  that  Christ's  death  was  not  sac  rificial  are 
compelled — (a.)  To  do  violence  to  language  by  saying  that 
the  Old  Testament  sacrifices  were  not  expiatory  ;  or  (b.)  to 
affirm  that  there  is  no  analo<?v  between  the  death  of  Christ 


250  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

and  the  sacrifices  of  the  old  economy,  and  that  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  New  Testament  are  figurative. 

As  to  the  first  position,  we  can  only  say  that  if  the  book 
of  Leviticus,  and  the  sixteenth  chapter  particularly,  does  not 
teach  that  the  offerings  were  penal,  vicarious  and  expiatory^ 
language  cannot  be  found  which  will  convey  the  idea.  And 
as  to  the  second,  we  remark  that  if  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  is  figurative,  the  writers  of  it  were  more 
given  to  poetical  expressions  than  any  writers  who  have  ever 
lived.  If  the  sober  utterances  of  ifispired  men  can  be  ex- 
plained away  on  the  ground  that  they  are  metaphorical, 
Talleyrand  was  truly  right  in  saying  that  language  was 
meant  to  conceal  thought.  Those,  however,  who  assume  that 
the  apostles  found  it  necessary  to  employ  falsifying  metaphors 
in  order  to  commend  the  gospel  to  the  Jews  must  assume  that 
God's  education  of  that  nation  was  a  failure.  It  would  be 
strange  if  the  effect  of  their  being  made  the  custodians  of 
the  oracles  of  God  should  be  to  unfit  them  for  receiving  the 
gospel  except  through  the  channel  of  falsehood. 

The  view  which  regards  the  death  of  Christ  as  a  sac- 
rifice is  much  simpler  and  more  natural.  It  explains 
how  his  death  is  spoken  of  as  the  ground  of  salvation.  It 
shows  that  the  Jewish  ritual  was  a  type  of  Christ,  and  so 
preserves  the  unity  of  the  two  Testaments.  It  leads  us,  too, 
to  see  how  God  prepared  for  the  advent  of  Christ  by  fa- 
miliarizing the  Jews  with  the  language  of  the  altar,  so  that 
it  was  no  strange  thing  for  them  to  learn  that  we  have  re- 
ceived "  redemption  through  his  blood." 

The  Bible  represents  Christ  as  executing  the  offices  of 
prophet,  priest  and  king.  Our  Shorter  Catechism,  in  the 
answer  to  Question  25,  says  ;  "  Christ  executeth  the  office 
of  a  priest  in  his  once  offering  up  of  himself  a  sacrifice  to 
satisfy  divine  justice,  and  reconcile  us  to  God,  and  in  mak- 
ino;  continual  intercession  for  us." 

The  relation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  to  the  pardon   of 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  251 

our  sins  and  our  acceptance  with  God  would  be  more  prop- 
erly considered  under  the  head  of  Justification.  Meanwhile, 
notice  that  three  thino-s  are  to  be  said  of  the  death  of 
Christ : 

1.  It  was  penal. 

It  was  not  the  result  of  unavoidable  circumstances,  for 
Jesus  said,  I  lay  down  my  life ;  no  man  taketh  it  from  me. 
Nor  was  it  didactic,  merely,  intended  as  a  manifestation  of 
sympathy  or  an  illustration  of  heroism.  It  was  judicial. 
Ke  was  delivered  for  our  offences.  He  was  made  a  curse 
for  us.  \ 

2.  It  was  vicarious. 

He  knew  no  sin ;  and  if  he  stood  in  legal  relations  and  en- 
dured penalty,  it  must  have  been  for  others.  He  bore  our 
sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  tree.  He  died,  the  just  for  the 
unjust.  He  gave  his  life  a  ransom  for  many  (in  place  of 
many). 

3.  It  was  expiatory. 

The  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin. 


LESSOjY  v. 

THE  PERSON  OF  CHRIST. 

Who  is  Jesus?  We  know  what  he  did.  He  gave  his  life 
as  our  ransom.  He  died  to  expiate  our  guilt.  He  is  our 
Saviour.  Our  Lord  once  asked  his  disciples,  What  think  ye 
of  Christ?  and  the  same  question  has  fallen  upon  the  ear 
of  humanity  ever  since.  Three  leading  replies  have  been 
given.  Humanitarians  say  that  Christ  is  a  man,  and  nothing 
more.  Arians  say  that  Christ,  though  a  creature,  was  more  \ 
than  man.  The  Nicene  or  orthodox  view,  is  that  Christ  is 
both  God  and  man.  Let  us  notice  these  replies  in  their 
order. 


252  PBEPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

I.  The  Humanitarians. 

Two  classes  are  embraced  under  this  head:  (a)  those 
\vho  deny  that  there  is  anything  supernatural  in  Christ's 
life,  and  who  say  that  he  was  born,  lived  and  died  as  other 
men  ;  (Jb)  those  who  believe  that  Christ  was  only  a  man, 
but  who  believed  also  in  his  supernatural  birth,  his  divine 
commission  and  his  resurrection  from  the  dead. 

Humanitarians  affirm  a  very  important  truth  when  they 
say  that  Christ  was  a  man.  It  may  be  well,  therefore,  to 
emphasize  this  fact,  which  we  hold  in  common  with  them, 
before  we  consider  the  point  of  difference  which  separates 
us  from  them. 

Jesus  Christ  was  a  man.  He  is  spoken  of  eighty-two  times 
in  the  New  Testament  as  the  Son  of  man.  He  is  called  the 
man  Christ  Jesus.  He  had  a  "  true  body."  It  was  not  a 
phantasm  or  shadow,  as  the  Docetse  thought.  Our  Lord  was 
born  of  a  woman.  His  body  grew  and  increased  in  strength. 
During  the  temptation  he  hungered.  On  the  cross  he  cried, 
*'  I  thirst."  He  was  wearied.  He  slept  once  at  night  in  a 
boat,  and  rested  once  at  noon  by  a  well.  He  had  a  true 
body  after  his  resurrecction.  The  doubting  disciple  had 
proof  of  this.  He  went  up  to  heaven  with  a  real,  though  a 
glorified,  body. 

He  also  had  "  a  reasonable  soul."  This  has  been  denied. 
Tiie  Apollinarians  believed  in  what  is  called  the  tripartite 
nature  of  man,  and  held  that,  while  Christ  had  a  human 
body  and  the  animal  soul,  the  spirit  was  wanting,  and 
that  its  place  was  supplied  by  the  Logos.  In  a  modified 
form  this  view  is  maintained  by  some  at  the  present  day. 
It  is  false,  however;  our  Lord's  life  was  as  completely  hu- 
man as  it  was  completely  divine.  He  suffered  ;  he  rejoiced 
in  si:)irit ;  he  loved  ;  he  wept ;  he  formed  friendships ;  he 
used  the  language  of  indignation  ;  he  was  tem})ted  ;  he 
was  made  under  the  law;  his  soul  was  exceeding  sorrow- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  253 

ful  even  unto  death.  If  Christ  had  no  human  soul,  these 
references  would  have  no  meaning,  A  human  body  is  not 
a  man.  An  angel  in  human  form  is  not  a  man.  God  in 
the  garment  of  flesh  and  blood  could  not  be  called  a  man. 
If  Christ  had  no  soul,  he  was  not  human,  and  was  not  our 
brother. 

The  full  humanity  of  Jesus  is  a  truth  of  vital  importance. 
All  that  is  precious  in  Christian  experience  is  involved  in 
it.     Christ  must  be  a  man — 

1.  That  he  might  be  our  example.  He  has  left  us  an  ex- 
ample that  we  should  follow  in  his  steps. 

2.  That  he  might  sympathize  with  us.  Having  suffered, 
being  tempted,  he  is  able  also  to  succor  them  who  are 
tempted. 

3.  That  he  might  take  our  place  in  law.  He  was  made 
under  the  law  that  he  might  redeem  them  who  are  under 
the  law. 

4.  That  he  might  be  our  High  Priest.  "For  every  high 
priest  taken  from  among  men  is  ordained  for  men  in  things 
pertaining  to  God,  that  he  may  offer  both  gifts  and  sacrifices 
for  sin." 

5.  That  he  might  be  a  merciful  and  faithful  High  Priest 
in  things  pertaining  to  God.  "  Being  tempted  in  all  points, 
like  as  we  are,  yet  without  sin." 

And  yet  the  humanity  of  Christ  is  of  little  worth  if 
Christ  is  onlv  a  man.  Humanitarians  lavish  euloo-ies  on 
Jesus,  but  they  are  only  laying  garlands  on  the  grave  of  the 
dead.  We  worship  a  living  Christ.  It  is  because  he  is  more 
than  man — that  Christianity  is  not  a  system  of  philosophy 
on  the  one  hand,  or  a  system  of  hero-worship  on  the  other. 

We  may  appeal  to  Christ's  character  to  prove  that  he  was 

not  an  ordinary  man — that  he  was,  to  say  the  least,  divinely 

inspired.     Some  find  in  it  proof  of  his  divinity,  but  this  is 

to    make    it  responsible    for    conclusions   which    are   not 

legitimately  deducible  from  it.     We  are  not  shut  up  to  the 
22 


254  PREPARING   TO   lEACH. 

belief  in  Christ's  divinity  because  his  character  is,  as  Dr. 
Schaff  says,  "  the  greatest  moral  miracle  in  history."  * 

The  character  ot  Christ  is  peerless.  The  words  of  Pilate 
are  the  verdict  of  the  ages :  I  find  no  fault  in  him.  But 
perfect  manhood  is  no  evidence  of  Deity.  When  we  are 
asked  to  account  for  this  solitary  instance  of  perfection,  we 
are  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  Christ  stood  in  intimate 
relation  with  God.  As  Nicodemus  would  have  said :  no 
man  could  have  lived  as  he  lived  except  God  were  with 
him.  And  yet  Christ  may  have  had  a  supernatural  birth, 
have  lived  a  perfect  life  and  have  risen  from  the  dead,  and 
still  have  been  a  man — a  mere  man,  though  by  no  means  an 
ordinary  man.  But  Christ  was  more  than  man,  as  we  shall 
see. 

II.  The  Arians. 

It  is  difficult  to  undei'stand  how  any  one  can  believe  the 
teachings  of  the  New  Testament  and  suppose  that  Christ 
was  a  mere  man.  Arians,  though  they  believe  that  Christ 
is  a  creature,  reject  the  Humanitarian  view.  Their  belief  may 
be  stated  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  an  Arian  of 
the  last  century  :  "  With  this  first  or  supreme  cause  or  Fa- 
ther of  all  things,  there  has  existed  from  the  beginning  a 
second  divine  person  who  is  the  Word  or  Son."  "  The  Father 
alone,"  he  says  elsewhere,  "  is,  absolutely  speaking,  the  God 
of  the  universe."  Arians  appeal  to  the  numerous  passages 
of  Scripture  which  teach  the  pre-existence  of  Jesus,f  such 
as  John  iii.  16  :  *'  But  he  that  came  down  from  heaven."  ix. 
64 :  "  What  if  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  ascending  up  where 
he  was  before."  xvii.  4 :  "And  now,  O  Father,  glorify  thou 
me  with  the  glory  which  I  had  with  thee  before  the  world 

*  See  SchafF's  "  Person  of  Christ,"  and  Dr.  Bushnell's  chapter  on  the 
character  of  Christ  in  liis  "Nature  and  the  Supernatural." 

f  Clarke  on  the  Trinity. 

See  the  admirable  chapter  on  the  pre-existence  of  Christ  in  Hill'a 
"Lectures  on  Divinity." 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  255 

was."  The  Arian  finds  that  the  Scriptures  place  Christ  on 
a  plane  far  above  that  of  mere  humanity,  for  they  teach 
that  Christ  existed  long  before  he  came  in  the  flesh,  and 
that  in  his  pre-existent  state  he  exercised  authority,  wielded 
power,  received  homage,  which  proves  hira  to  be  invested 
with  a  dignity  which  is  shared  by  no  other  creature — which 
takes  him  out  of  the  sphere  of  created  beings  altogether,  we 
should  say.     But  we  shall  come  to  that  presently. 

Arianism  fails  to  explain  the  teachings  of  Scripture  re- 
specting Christ.  It  refutes  Humanitarianism  by  showing 
that  Christ  is  more  than  man.  It  is  in  turn  refuted  by  Hu- 
manitarianism, which  proves  that  Christ  w^as  at  least  a  man. 
Arianism  is  false  because  it  destroys  Christ's  humanity,* 
and  because  it  denies  his  deity.  His  humanity  has  been 
proved.     His  deity  must  now  be  considered. 

III.  The  Nicexe  Doctrine. 

The  Council  of  Nice  in  325  A.  D.  condemned  Arianism, 
and  affirmed  that  "  the  Son  is  begotten  out  of  the  essence 
of  the  Father,  God  of  God,  Light  of  light,  very  God  of  very 
God,  begotten  not  created,  consubstantial  with  the  Father." 
The  Nicene  creed  expresses  the  faith  of  the  Christian  Church. 
But  before  the  evidence  for  the  deity  of  Christ  is  presented, 
notice  that  the  Arian  has  already  overcome  the  greatest 
difficulty  connected  with  the  person  of  Christ  in  admitting 
the  supernatural  element  which  enters  into  it.  The  Arian 
is  the  ally  of  the  orthodox  in  proving,  in  opposition  to  the 

*The  incarnation,  according  to  Arius,  was  merely  the  assumption 
by  the  Son  of  a  human  body,  his  nature  supplying  the  place  of  a 
soul.     Robertson's  "  Church  History,"  vol.  i.,  p.  208. 

"  You  run  counter  to  all  the  ancients  in  supposing  the  Logos  to 
have  supplied  the  place  of  a  human  soul,  and  making  the  Logos  as 
such  possible^"     Waterland's  "Vindication"  (reply  to  Dr,  Clarke). 

"We  believe  that  Jesus  is  one  mind,  soul — one  being,  as  truly 
as  we  are  one,  and  equally  distinct  from  the  one  God."  Channing'*8 
"Uritarian  Christianity." 


256  PBEPABINO   TO   TEACH. 

Humanitarian,  that  Christ  existed  ages  before  he  was  born, 
and  was  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father  before  the  world  was 
made.  The  question  now  is  to  determine  whether  Jesus  is 
the  highest  of  all  creatures  or  whether  he  is  God.  There 
are  some  passages  of  Scripture  which,  though  they  naturally 
suggest  the  deity  of  Christ,  may,  we  admit,  be  construed  in 
an  Arian  sense;  and  since  we  can  quote  only  a  few,  we  shall 
not  mention  these  at  all.  The  following  passages  teach  the 
deity  of  Christ  unequivocally  : 

1.  Christ  claimed  to  be  equal  with  God.  He  said,  "I  and 
my  Father  are  one."  "  My  Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  I 
work."  "  That  ye  may  know  the  Son  of  man  hath  power  on 
earth  to  forgive  sins,  I  say  unto  thee,  Arise."  "  Have  I  been 
so  long  a  time  with  thee,  and  yet  hast  thou  not  known  me, 
Philip?  He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the  Father,  and 
how  sayest  thou  then,  Show  us  the  Father?" 

On  the  supposition  that  Christ  is  less  than  God,  these  ut- 
terances cannot  be  explained.  The  Jews  understood  him 
to  lay  claim  to  divine  honors,  and  stoned  him  on  that  account: 
"  We  stone  thee  for  blasphemy  because  thou,  being  a  man, 
makest  thyself  God."  Christ  did  not  tell  them  that  they 
had  misunderstood  him.  He  accepted  their  interpretation 
of  his  claims.  The  claims  of  Christ  are  backed  by  his 
character  and  his  miracles.  It  is  impossible  to  believe  that 
so  pure  a  man  as  Jesus  was  would  pretend  to  be  what  he  was 
not,  or  that  God  would  enable  him  to  work  miracles  in  sup- 
port of  a  falsehood. 

2.  Christ  is  the  angel  of  the  covenant.*  When  God  re- 
vealed himself  to  the  patriarchs,  it  was  usually  in  the  form 
of  an  angel.  An  angel  appeared  to  Jacob  at  Bethel,  to 
Moses  on  Sinai.  The  angel  of  the  Lord  went  before  the 
camp  of  Israel  in  their  journeying  through  the  wilderness. 
We  have  abundant  proof  that  this  angel  was  not  a  created 

*See  Hill's  "Lectures  in  Divinity"  on  actions  ascribed  to  Jesus  in 
his  pre-existent  state. 


SU3fMABY  OF  DOCTRINE.  257 

being  ;  he  is  invh-riably  spoken  of  as  God.  "  The  angel  of 
the  Lord  spake  with  me,"  says  Jacob,  "saying,  I  am  the 
God  of  Bethel."  The  angel  of  the  Lord  appeared  to  Moses 
in  a  flame  of  fire  out  of  the  midst  of  the  bush.  "And  when 
the  Lord  saw  that  he  turned  aside  to  see,  God  called  unto 
him  out  of  the  midst  of  the  bush."  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  same  person  is  called  angel  and  Jehovah.  "  The  an- 
gel "or  "the  angel  of  the  covenant"  was  understood  by  the 
Jews  to  mean  the  person  who  had  appeared  to  the  patri- 
archs, and  who  led  Israel  through  the  desert.  This  person 
was  divine,  for  he  is  called  Jehovah.  If  it  can  be  shown 
that  this  person  w^as  Christ,  it  will  prove  that  Christ  is  God. 
We  read  in  Malachi  iii.  1 :  "Behold,  I  send  my  messenger, 
and  he  shall  prepare  the  way  before  me :  and  the  Lord 
whom  ye  seek  shall  suddenly  come  to  his  temple,  even  the 
messenger  of  the  covenant  whom  ye  delight  in."  This 
prophecy  is  referred  in  the  gospel  to  John  the  Baptist. 
John  the  Baptist  is  therefore  the  messenger  of  whom  it  is 
said,  "  He  shall  prepare  the  way  before  me."  But  John  the 
Baptist  prepared  the  way  for  Christ.  Christ  is  therefore  the 
one  referred  to  in  Malachi,  in  the  next  clause  of  the  verse, 
as  the  Lord  (Jehovah),  the  messenger  (angel)  of  the 
covenant. 

3.  Christ  is  called  God  in  the  New  Testament :  "  In  the 
beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and 
the  Word  was  God.  .  .  .  And  the  Word  was  made  flesh, 
and  dwelt  amongst  us."  John  i. 

"And  Thomas  answered  and  said  unto  him.  My  Lord 
and  my  God."  John  xx.  28. 

"  Take  heed  therefore  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  flock 
over  the  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you  overseers,  to 
feed  the  church  of  God,  which  he  hath  purchased  with  his 
own  blood."  Acts  xx.  28. 

"  Of  whom,  as  concerning  the  flesh,  Christ  came,  who  ia 

over  all,  God  blessed  for  ever."  Rom.  ix,  -5. 
9.2  * 


258  PREPARINO   TO   J  EACH. 

"  Great  is  the  mystery  of  godliness,  God  manifest  in  the 
flesh."  1  Tim.  iii.  16. 

"  This  (person,  Jesus  Christ)  is  the  true  God  and  eternal 
life."  1  John  V.  20. 

"  Looking  for  that  blessed  hope  and  the  glorious  appearing 
of  the  great  God  and  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  Titus 
ii.  3.* 

These  passages  directly  assert  the  deity  of  Christ.  It 
must  be  remembered,  too,  that  he  is  referred  to  in  the 
Psalms  and  the  prophets  in  terms  which  would  be  inapplic- 
able to  any  creature.  He  is  called  the  mighty  God,  the 
everlasting  Father,  the  Prince  of  peace.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, he  is  constantly  called  the  Lord,  our  Lord,  the  Lord  of 
glory.  He  is  before  all  things.  He  is  the  first-born  of  every 
creature.  The  world  was  made  by  him.  He  is  the  image  of 
the  invisible  God.  He  is  to  be  honored  even  as  we  honor 
the  Father.  He  is  the  judge  of  men.  He  is  the  object  of 
worship.  He  is  omnipresent  and  omniscient.  He  does  di- 
vine acts,  is  the  subject  of  divine  attributes,  shares  divine 
honors,  and  is  called  God.  If  we  are  willing  to  accept  the 
Scriptures  as  our  infallible  rule  of  faith,  the  deity  of  Christ 
must  be  considered  as  proved. 

It  is  urged  by  objectors  that  it  is  impossible  to  compre- 
hend how  the  Son  can  be  God  and  the  Father  God, 
and  yet  that  there  is  only  one  God.  It  is  a  mystery,  of 
course.  But  the  doctrine  is  not  false  because  it  is  incom- 
prehensible. It  is  not  strange  that  the  relations  which  the 
persons  of  the  Godhead  sustain  to  one  another  baffle  our 
comprehension. 

It  is  also  said  that  Christ  speaks  of  himself  as  subordinate 
to  the  Father.     He  says,  ''  My  Father  is  greater  than  I." 

*Ellicott,  Cora,  in  loc,  says,  "It  is  difficult  to  resist  the  conviction 
that  our  blessed  Lord  is  here  said  to  be  our  fj-eyag  Gedf,  and  that  thia 
text  is  a  direct,  definite,  and  even  studied,  declaration  of  the  divinity  of 
the  eternal  Son." 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRrJE.  259 

He  intimates  that  some  things  are  known  to  the  Father 
which  are  not  known  to  the  Son :  "  But  of  that  day  and 
that  hour  knoweth  no  man  ;  no,  not  tlie  angels  which  are 
in  heaven,  nor  the  Son,  but  the  Father."  Mark  xiii.  32. 

But  we  must  remember  that  Christ  had  a  finite  human 
nature  as  well  as  an  infinite  divine  nature.  Christ,  though 
co-equal  with  the  Father,  was  oflScially  subordinate  to  him 
in  his  mediatorial  work.  These  considerations  fully  ex- 
plain the  passages  referred  to  without  derogating  from 
Christ's  divinity. 

The  deity  of  Christ  is  a  practical  doctrine.  Between 
those  who  believe  and  those  who  deny  it  the  distance  is 
measureless.  If  Christ  is  a  creature,  we  are  idolaters  who 
worship  him.  If  Christ  is  God,  his  death  cannot  be  explained 
except  upon  the  principle  that  without  the  shedding  of 
blood  there  is  no  remission.  Those  who  deny  the  deity 
of  Christ,  as  a  rule,  deny  the  sacrificial  character  of  his 
death.  Those  who  believe  that  his  death  was  the  propitiation 
for  our  sins  are  naturally  led  to  believe  that  he  is  God.  It 
is  well  to  notice  how  the  doctrines  confirm  one  another. 
Sin  calls  for  sacrifice,  as  we  have  already  seen;  but  the 
sacrifice  of  an  angel  could  not  save  us.  It  must  be  a  human 
sacrifice.  Christ  is  the  sacrifice,  and  he  has  a  human  nature. 
But  the  death  of  a  mere  man  could  not  atone  for  our  sins. 
It  must  be  the  death  of  a  divine  person  to  give  it  value. 
Christ  had  a  divine  nature. 

The  Scripture  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ  is  summed 
up  in  these  propositions  : 

1.  He  had  a  complete  human  nature — i.  e.,  a  true  body 
and  a  reasonable  soul. 

2.  He  had  a  true  divine  nature.     He  was  God. 

3.  These  natures  exist  entire  and  distinct,  without  mixture 
or  confusion. 

4.  He  is  one  person. 

Though  having  two  natures,  he  has  only  a  single  persoo- 


260  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

ality.     He  is  the  divine  person  who  existed  from  all  eter- 
nity. 

Our  Shorter  Catechism  expresses  this  by  saying  that 
"The  only  redeemer  of  God's  elect  is  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who,  being  the  eternal  Sou  of  God,  became  man,  and 
so  was,  and  continues  to  be,  God  and  man,  in  two  distinct 
natures  and  one  person  for  ever." 


LJESSOJV  VL 
THE  TEINITY. 

Eeligion  presupposes  God.  Belief  in  God  is  universal, 
and  is  vindicated  by  valid  arguments.  There  is  need  of  an 
authoritative  standard  to  give  us  information  regarding 
God's  nature,  and  to  arbitrate  between  conflicting  opinions. 
That  standard  is  the  Bible.  These  propositions  have  all 
been  considered. 

The  Bible  teaches — 

1.  That  God  is. 

It  does  not  offer  proof  of  his  existence.  It  takes  it  for 
granted.  It  relates  what  God  said  and  did,  and  what  he 
would  have  us  believe  and  do. 

2.  That  there  is  only  one  God. 

"  Hear,  O  Israel,  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord."  Deut.  vi. 
4.  "  But  to  us  there  is  but  one  God,  the  Father,  of  whom 
are  all  things."  1  Cor.  viii.  5.  There  is  evidence  in  history, 
and  apart  from  Scripture,  that  polytheism  is  the  corrupted 
form  of  an  original  monotheistic  faith.  For  a  preservation 
of  monotheism,  however,  we  are  indebted  to  revelation. 
Jews,  Mohammedans  and  Christians  believe  in  one  God  be- 
cause they  have  been  taught  by  the  Bible. 

3.  That  he  is  extra-mundane. 

Pantheists  profess  to  believe  in  God,  but  they  identify 
God  with  the  universe.     God  is  everything,  and  everything 


SVMMABY  OF  DCKJTBINE.  261 

is  God.  The  Scriptures  teach  that  God  is  distinct  from  the 
world,  for  he  made  it :  "  Before  the  mountains  were  brought 
forth,  or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the  earth  and  the  world, 
even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  thou  art  God."  Ps. 
xc.  2. 

4.  That  he  is  a  spirit,  infinite  in  every  perfection. 

"  God  is  a  spirit,  and  they  who  worship  him  must  worship 
him  in  spirit  and  in  truth."  John  iv.  24.  Our  Shorter  Cate- 
chism gives  this  answer  to  the  question,  What  is  God  ?  God 
is  a  spirit,  infinite,  eternal,  unchangeable  in  his  being,  wis- 
dom, power,  holiness,  justice,  goodness  and  truth.* 

5.  That  he  is  a  person. 

This  is  involved  in  the  attributes  first  ascribed  to  liim. 
He  is  not  a  force,  a  tendency,  a  law.  He  is  a  person  whom 
we  can  address,  whom  we  can  love,  who  can  reward  or  pun- 
ish us.  To  deny  the  personality  of  God  is,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  to  avow  Atheism."}" 

But  this  is  not  all.  We  have  reached  conclusions  regard- 
ing Christ  which  make  it  necessary  to  believe  more  than 
we  have  yet  stated  regarding  God. 

Jesus  Christ  is  God.  Jesus  Christ  is  likewise  tlie  Son  of 
God.  So  that  we  have  God  the  Father  and  God  the  Son, 
We  have  God  the  Holy  Ghoet  also,  as  we  shall  see.  For  it 
can  be  shown — (a)  That  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a  person. 
Some  orthodox  people,  because  they  are  very  thoughtless  or 
very  ignorant,  speak  of  the  Holy  Ghost  as  it.  The  Holy 
Ghost  is  not  simply  the  power  of  God,  a  divine  influence  or 
energy.  He  is  a  person,  as  we  are  clearly  taught  in  passages 
like  the  following  :  "  Grieve  not  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God." 

*  For  remarks  on  the  attributes  of  God,  see  the  commentary  on  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge. 

f  Matthew  Arnold  defines  God  to  be  a  stream  of  tendency  according 
to  which  all  things  fulfill  the  law  of  their  being.  The  great  mistake 
of  Christianity,  according  to  him,  consists  in  regarding  God  as  a  per- 
son.— Literature  and  Dogma. 


262  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

Eph.  iv.  30.  "  The  Spirit  maketh  intercession  for  us  with 
groanings  which  cannot  be  uttered."  Rom.  viii.  26.  "  The 
Spirit  said  unto  Peter,  Behold,  three  men  seek  thee."  Acts 
X.  19.  The  Holy  Ghost  said,  *'  Separate  me  Barnabas  and 
Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I  have  called  them."  Acts 
xiii.  2. 

"  The  Comforter,  who  is  the  Holy  Ghost,  whom  the  Fa- 
ther will  send  in  my  name ;  he  shall  teach  you  all  things." 
John  xiv.  26.* 

(6.)  That  the  Holy  Ghost  is  God. 

There  are  few  who  believe  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a  crea- 
ture. Those  who  deny  the  Trinity  maintain  that  by  the  Spirit 
is  simply  meant  the  operation  of  God  or  the  influence 
which  God  exerts.  The  deity  of  the  Spirit  seems  to  follow 
when  his  personality  is  established.  It  is  very  clear  that 
he  is  not  a  creature.  The  unpardonable  sin  is  blasphemy 
against  the  Holy  Ghost.  Ananias  was  told  that  he  had  lied 
to  the  Holy  Ghost.  And  when  Peter  repeated  the  statement, 
he  said  that  he  had  lied  unto  God.  To  lie  unto  the  Holy 
Ghost,  therefore,  is  to  lie  unto  God. 

Again,  in  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  Christians 
are  spoken  of  as  temples  of  God,  and  this  is  explained  by 
the  statement  that  the  Spirit  of*  God  dwelleth  in  them.  We 
are  taught  to  honor  the  Spirit  as  we  honor  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  for  we  are  baptized  in  his  name,  and  the  apostolic 
benediction  invokes  the  communion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  as 
well  as  the  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

The  Scriptures  teach,  therefore,  1.  That  there  is  only  one 
God.  2.  That  the  Father  is  God ;  that  the  Son  is  God ; 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  God. 

Those  who  accept  these  facts  differ  in  their  explanation  of 
them,  and  their  difference  is  brought  out  in  the  two  leading 
opinions  on  the  Trinity  :  the  Sabellian  and  the  Athanasiau. 
*  See  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  art.  viii. 


SU3niABY  OF  DOCTRINE.  263 

I.  The  Sabellian  Doctrine.  j/ 

The  Scripture  requires  us  to  believe  in  the  deity  of  the 
Father,  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  at  the 
same  time  preserve  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity.  This 
is  a  difficulty.  The  first,  and  perhaps  the  most  natural, 
solution  of  it  would  be  what  is  known  in  Church  history  as 
Sabellianism,  or  the  doctrine  of  a  modal  Trinity.  Those 
who  hold  this  opinion  suppose  that  the  same  Being  mani- 
fests himself,  at  one  time  and  in  one  relation,  as  Father; 
at  another  time  and  in  another  relation,  as  Son  ;  and  at 
another  time  and  in  another  relation,  as  Holy  Ghost.  As 
Creator,  God  is  Father ;  as  Redeemer,  he  is  the  Son ;  as 
Sanctifier,  he  is  the  Holy  Ghost,  just  as  the  same  man 
may  be  known  by  different  names  at  different  times  and 
under  different  circumstances.  As  a  church  officer,  he 
may  be  called  deacon;  as  a  professional  man,  he  maybe 
colled  judge  ;  while  a  third  party,  associating  his  name 
with  army  reminiscences,  may  call  him  general. 

The  doctrine  of  a  modal  Trinity,  however,  does  not  teach 
the  whole  truth.  It  teaches  truly  that  the  Father  is  God,  that 
the  Son  is  God,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  God,  and  yet  that 
there  are  not  three  Gods,  but  one  God.  But  it  denies  that 
the  Father  is  a  person  distinct  from  the  Son,  the  Son  a  per- 
son distinct  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  a  person  distinct  from  the  Father  and  the  Son.  "  The 
scriptural  facts  are — (a)  the  Father  says  I,  the  Son  says  T, 
the  Spirit  says  I.  (6)  The  Father  says  thou  to  the  Son, 
and  the  Son  says  thou  to  the  Father,  and  in  like  manner 
the  Father  and  Son  use  the  pronouns  he  and  him  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Spirit,  (c)  The  Father  loves  the  Son,  the  Son 
loves  the  Father,  the  Spirit  testifies  of  the  Son."* 

In  other  words,  the  Scriptures  teach  the  doctrine  of  a 
tri-personal  God. 

*  Dr.  Hodge,  "  Systematic  Theology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  444. 


264  PREPARING   TO   lEACH. 

II.  The  Athanasian  Doctrine. 

The  full  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  set  forth  in 
the  so-called  Athanasian  creed.    We  quote  a  few  sentences: 

"  But  this  is  the  catholic  faith,  that  we  worship  one  God 
in  trinity,  and  trinity  in  unity.  Neither  confounding  the 
persons  nor  dividing  the  substance.  For  the  person  of  the 
Father  is  one,  of  the  Son  another,  of  the  Holy  Spirit  an- 
other. But  the  divinity  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  one,  the  glory  equal,  the  majesty 
equal.  Such  as  is  the  Father,  such  also  is  the  Son,  and 
such  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Father  is  uncreated,  the  Son  is 
uncreated,  the  Holy  Spirit  is  uncreated.  The  Father  is 
infinite,  the  Son  is  infinite,  the  Holy  Ghost  is  infinite.  The 
Father  is  eternal,  the  Son  is  eternal,  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
eternal.  And  yet  there  are  not  three  eternal  beings,  but 
one  eternal  Being.  As  also  there  are  not  three  uncreated 
beings  nor  three  infinite  beings,  but  one  uncreated  and 
one  infinite  Being." 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  Athanasian  creed  does  not  add 
anything  to  what  the  Scriptures  themselves  teach  regarding 
God.  The  Bible  teaches — (1)  That  there  is  only  one  God. 
(2)  That  the  Father  is  God,  the  Son  God,  the  Holy  Ghost 
God.  (3)  That  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  are  three 
distinct  persons.  These  three  facts  constitute  the  Church 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The  doctrine  being  proved,  it  is 
natural  that  we  should  find  references  to  it  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, where  the  word  Elohim  (God)  appears  in  the  plural 
form  ;  where  God  says  let  us  make  man  ;  in  the  trinal  form 
of  adoration  :  Holy,  Holy,  Holy ;  and  in  the  threefold  form 
of  blessing.  There  are  repeated  references  to  it  in  the  New 
Testament,  but  the  most  remarkable  are  found  in  the  bap- 
tismal formula  and  in  the  apostolic  benediction. 

The  three  persons  of  the  Trinity,  though  the  same  in 
substance,  equal  in  power  and  glory,  nevertheless  sustain 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  265 

80ch  a  relation  to  each  other  that  the  Father  is  first,  the 
Son  second,  the  Holy  Ghost  third.  The  second  person 
is  so  related  to  the  first  as  to  be  called  the  Son,  but  what 
the  relation  implies  we  do  not  know.  The  Son  has  been 
Son  from  all  eternity,  and  did  not  assume  the  title  at  his 
incarnation.  The  Holy  Ghost  "  proceedeth "  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  but  what  this  expression  implies  we 
cannot  say. 

If  the  separate  elements  which  enter  into  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  are  proved  to  be  taught  in  Scripture,  the 
only  reasonable  mode  of  objecting  to  the  doctrine  is  that  of 
denying  the  authority  of  Scripture  ;  and  many  do  stand  in 
this  defiant  attitude.  But  there  are  many  who  are  not 
willing  to  concede  that  the  separate  elements  of  the  doc- 
trine are  taught  in  Scripture.  In  other  words,  they  deny 
that  the  deity  of  Christ  is  taught  in  the  Bible.  Of  course, 
as  long  as  they  do  this,  it  is  unnecessary  for  them  to  urge, 
or  even  for  us  to  consider,  further  objections  against  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Unitarians,  however,  are  fond  of 
making  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  appear  ridiculous.  And 
some  who  do  not  disbelieve  the  deity  of  Christ  are  per- 
plexed by  the  difficulties  which  they  meet  in  Trinitarian 
theology,  and  make  a  truce  with  doubt  by  assuming  that, 
after  all,  the  doctrine  is  not  of  much  practical  importance. 
To  illustrate : 

1.  It  is  said  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  involves  a 

contradiction.     But  this  is  a  mistake.     The  Church  does 

not  teach  that  three  persons  are  one  person,  but  that  one 

Being  exists  in  three  persons.     It  is  assumed  always  by 

those  who  ridicule  Trinitarian  faith  that  we  suppose  that 

Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  are  three  persons,  in  the  same 

sense  that  Peter,    'ames  and  John  are  three  individuals. 

But  we  do  n(;t.     What  do  we  believe?     We  believe — (1) 

that  there  is  one  God ;  (2)  that  God  is  tri-personal — that  is 

to  say,  that   Father,  Son  and  H  »  y  Ghost  are  so  distinct 
'2:, 


■9- 


2G6  .  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

that  the  Father  can  address  the  Son,  the  Son  address  the 
Father  and  speak  of  sending  the  Spirit.  The  Scripture 
teaches  these  facts  reo-ardins:  the  relation  of  Father,  Son 
and  Spirit,  and  the  word  person  expresses  them  better  than 
any  other. 

Again,  it  is  asked  how  the  Son  can  be  as  old  as  the 
Father.  The  object  of  the  question  is  to  involve  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  in  a  contradiction,  for  of  course,  if 
Christ  is  God,  he  is  co-eternal  with  the  Father.  But  we 
cannot  fathom  the  meaning  of  the  words  "Father"  and 
"  Son  "  when  used  to  express  the  relations  of  the  first  and 
second  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  We  know  that  there  is  a 
relation  between  them  which  these  names  are  used  to 
express.     Beyond  that  we  are  in  the  dark. 

2.  It  is  said  that  the  doctrine  is  inconceivable.  But  this 
is  not  true.  Every  statement  of  the  Athanasian  creed 
is  a  plain  proposition.  It  is  incomprehensible,  without 
doubt.  But  that  is  not  strange.  The  incomprehensibility 
of  the  doctrine  should  not  make  us  doubt  its  truth  or  ques- 
tion its  importance. 

3.  It  is  said  that  the  subject  is  of  no  great  practical  value. 
This,  too,  is  a  grave  mistake.  This  is  a  fundamental  doc- 
trine. Sin  is  the  violation  of  God's  law,  hence  our  need 
of  pardon.  Pardon  must  be  preceded  by  propitiation. 
The  propitiation  is  made  by  Christ,  and  to  give  it  value 
Christ  must  be  divine.  The  divinity  of  Christ  proves  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Those  who  deny  the  Trinity  deny, 
as  a  rule,  the  deity  of  Christ,  deny  that  Christ  made  an 
atonement,  and  deny  that  sin  is  such  a  violation  of  God's 
law  that  it  incurs  God's  wrath  and  curse  to  all  eternity. 

The  doctrines  of  Scripture  are  so  related  that  if  we  deny 
the  Trinity  we  part  company  with  the  gospel. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  267 

LESSOJV  YIL 

JUSTIFICATION. 

A  MAN  dies  and  goes  to  heaven,  let  us  suppose.  Now, 
why  ?  That  is  a  practical  question,  certainly.  And  yet  the 
answer  to  it  fills  a  long  chapter  in  theological  discussion. 
It  is  a  mistake,  therefore,  to  suppose  that  religion  can  be 
divorced  from  theology. 

Between  man  the  sinner  and  Christ  the  Saviour,  there 
must  be  some  relation  which  constitutes  the  foundation 
of  Christian  hope,  and  which  furnishes  material  for  an 
answer  to  the  question  which  we  have  just  asked.  All 
professing  Christians  would  agree,  perhaps,  in  saying  that 
Christ  saves  us  by  securing  our  justification,  or  that  we 
enter  heaven  because  we  are  justified.  But  there  are  differ- 
ences of  opinion  respecting  the  nature,  ground,  means  and 
effect"^  of  justification,  and  these  differences  represent  dif- 
ferent answers  to  the  question  just  propounded,  if,  in  fact, 
they  do  not  constitute  different  religions. 

I.  The  Nature  of  Justification. 

There  are  two,  and  only  two,  leading  views  on  this  sub- 
ject; for  justification  must  refer  either  to  a  change  of  cha- 
racter or  to  a  change  of  legal  condition.  It  must  be  moral 
or  forensic.  The  difference  between  these  views  is  apparent. 
A  criminal  under  sentence  of  death  is  pardoned.  The 
pardon  does  not  alter  the  man's  nature  or  reform  his 
character ;  the  change  of  which  he  is  the  subject  is  simply 
legal.  If  his  pardon  were  called  his  justification,  the  word 
justification  would  be  used  in  a  forensic  sense.  Again,  a 
man  is  imprisoned  for  crime,  and  under  reformatory  influ- 

*  These  four  points  "may  be  justly  said  to  include  whatever  is 
essential  and  fundamental  in  the  doctrine  of  justification." — Buchan- 
an on  JusiificcUion,  p.  113. 


268  PBEPARiNQ   TO   TEACH. 

ences  his  conduct  improves.  If  we  should  speak  of  the 
change  wrought  on  the  man's  character  as  his  justifica- 
tion, we  should  be  using  the  word  in  a  moral  sense ;  there- 
fore, when  a  man  says  that  he  believes  in  "justification  by 
faith,"  it  is  very  important  to  know  whether  he  uses  the 
word  justification  in  a  moral  or  in  a  forensic  sense.  Let 
us  consider  these  senses  separately. 

1.  Moral. — The  controversy  between  the  Protestants  and 
the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  Reformation  turned  largely 
on  the  nature  of  justification,  the  latter  using  the  word  in  a 
moral  sense,  though  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  forensic — 
the  former  using  it  in  the  forensic  sense  alone.  Justifica- 
tion is  defined  by  thje  Council  of  Trent*  to  be  "  not  only 
the  remission  of  sins,  but  the  renewal  and  sanctification 
of  the  inner  man."  According  to  the  Church  of  Rome, 
therefore,  justification  consists  in  a  change  of  moral  cha- 
racter produced  by  the  removal  of  original  sin  and  the  in- 
fusion of  righteousness.  But  besides  this  moral  use  of  the 
word,  in  behalf  of  which  they  contended  with  the  Protest- 
ants, they  recognized  its  forensic  or  judicial  meaning  ;  and 
unless  this  is  kept  in  mind,  we  shall  fall  into  confusion 
when  we  study  their  position  respecting  the  ground  of 
justification,  for  they  very  strenuously  teach,  in  opposition 
to  Protestants,  that  we  are  justified  by  an  inherent  righteous- 
ness. But  inherent  righteousness  is  justification,  as  we  have 
already  seen ;  and  how  can  inherent  righteousness  be  the 
essence  of  justification  and  the  ground  of  justification  at 
the  same  time?  The  only  solution  is,  that  the  Roman 
Catholics  use  the  word  both  in  its  moral  and  in  its  judicial 

*  Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  VI.,  cap.  7 :  "  Justificatio  non  est  sola  peceato- 
rum,  remissio  sedet  sanctificatio  et  renovatio  interioris  dominis  per 
voluntariam  susceptionera  gratiat  et  donorura  unde  homo  ex  in- 
justo  fit  Justus,  et  ex  inimico  fit  amicus  ut  sit  hseres  secundum 
spem  vitae  aeternse,  etc." — Quoted  in  Winer's  Confessions  of  Chrxs- 
tendom. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  269 

sense — the  moral  when  they  speak  of  the  nature  of  justifi- 
cation, and  the  judicial  when  they  speak  of  its  ground. 

Those  who  hold  the  moral-influence  theory  of  the  atoDe- 
Dient  use  the  word  justification  in  its  moral  sense.  They 
take  the  element  of  guilt  out  of  sin,  the  element  of  law  out 
of  the  atonement,  and  the  element  of  pardon  out  of  salva- 
tion. Sin,  they  say,  brings  suffering.  To  get  rid  of  suffering 
we  must  cease  to  sin.  Christ  is  our  Saviour  because  he  de- 
livers us  from  our  sins.  Men  need  cure  and  not  pardon. 
Justification  is  a  moral  change  and  not  a  legal  one.  We 
go  to  heaven  because  we  are  holy.* 

This  view  of  justification  is  similar  to  that  taught  by  the 
Koman  Catholic  Church,  but  it  is  more  unscriptural  and 
unevangelical.  For,  false  as  the  Romish  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication is,  it  proceeds  upon  a  recognition  of  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin,  the  need  of  supernatural  grace  and  the  expia- 
tory character  of  the  atonement.  The  moral -influence  theory 
ignores  or  denies  these  cardinal  doctrines,  while,  in  common 
with  the  Roman  Catholics,  it  teaches  that  we  go  to  heaven 
on  the  ground  of  what  we  are.  And  yet  this  doctrine  has 
its  defenders  in  so-called  evangelical  pulpits!  We  should 
be  on  our  guard  against  it ;  it  is  another  gospel. 

*  So  the  sinner  is  justified,  and  the  justification  is  a  most  vital  af- 
fair— "  the  justification  of  life."  The  true  account  of  it  is  that  Je- 
sus, coming  into  the  world  with  all  God's  righteousness  upon  him, 
declaring  it  to  guilty  souls  in  all  the  manifold  evidences  of  his  life 
and  passion,  wins  their  faith  ;  and  by  that  faith  they  are  connected 
again  with  the  life  of  God,  and  filled  and  overspread  with  his 
righteousness." — BushnelUs  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  p.  435. 

"This  first  step,  or  look,  Godward,  this  incipient  but  genuine 
movement  of  the  child-spirit,  is  justification,  rectification,  the  right- 
ing, rightening,  setting  right  of  the  soul  which  was  before  wholly 
wrong." — John  Young's  Christ  the  Light  and  Life  of  3fen,'p.  171. 

"Therefore,  the  pardon  of  sin,  in  any  other  sense  than  the  reveal- 
ing and  the  opening  to  us  of  the  path  of  life,  is  now  to  us  as  undesir- 
able as,  in  relation  to  the  moral  government  of  the  Father  of  spirits, 
it  is  inconceivable." — McLeod  Campbell  on  the  Atonement,  p.  183. 
23* 


270  PREFABING   TO   TEACH. 

2.  Forensic. — The  Protestant  churches  hold  the  forensic 
view  of  justification.  Calvinists  and  Arminians  agree  in 
affirming  that  justification  expresses  a  change  of  legal  con- 
dition, and  not  a  change  of  moral  character.  But  they 
differ  in  this  way :  Arminians,  the  later  ones  especially, 
say  that  justification  means  pardon;  Calvinists  say  that 
it  means  pardon  and  acceptance.  To  illustrate  :  the  execu- 
tive pardons  a  criminal,  but  he  does  not  treat  him  as 
if  he  had  never  done  wrong.  God,  however,  not  only 
pardons  his  children,  but  he  treats  them  as  if  they  had 
never  sinned.  He  counts  them  as  if  they  were  righteous. 
Our  catechism  says :  "  Justification  is  an  act  of  God's  free 
grace,  wherein  he  pardoneth  all  our  sins,  and  accepteth  us 
as  righteous  in  his  sight."  It  is  easy  to  show  that  this  is 
the  scriptural  view  of  justification — that  is  to  say,  that  jus- 
tification is  a  judicial  act,  and  that  it  is  more  than  pardon. 

1.  A  Judicial  Act. — The  adjective  dikaios  in  Greek  is 
the  epithet  used  to  express  the  idea  of  being  right  in  relation 
to  the  law.  The  verb  dikaioo,  translated  "justify,"  expresses 
the  idea  of  placing  one  in  the  position  implied  in  the  ad- 
jective dikaios.  Whether  in  a  particular  case  it  is  used  in 
the  moral  sense  of  "  making  righteous  "  or  in  the  forensic 
sense  "  of  pronouncing  righteous,"  must  be  determined  by 
the  context  and  the  usus  loquendi  of  the  writer.  It  is 
clear  that  it  is  used  in  the  latter  sense  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

(a)  For  if  it  were  used  in  the  moral  sense,  it  would  be 
possible  to  substitute  the  word  "sanctify"  for  "justify" 
without  destroying  the  sense.  This  cannot  be  done,  how- 
ever, as  any  one  who  will  make  the  experiment  will  find. 

(b)  The  judicial  meaning  of  justification  is  apparent 
from  Paul's  argument  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  His 
theme  is  our  relation  to  the  law  of  God.  All  have  sinned, 
all  are  under  condemnation.  By  the  deeds  of  the  law  there 
is  no  justification.     Justification  is  an  act  of  God — an  act 


SUiMiMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  271 

done  without  regard  to  our  works — an  act  of  grace  on  the 
ground  of  the  propitiation  of  Christ — an  act  of  deliverance 
from  condemnation.     See  Rom.  iii.  19-26. 

(c)  Justification  does  not  mean  a  making  holy,  for  the 
Scriptures  distinguish  between  justification  and  sanctifica- 
tion.  1  Cor.  vi.  11. 

{d)  Paul  speaks  of  David's  describing  the  blessedness 
of  the  man  to  whom  God  imputeth  righteousness  without 
works.  Rom.  iv.  6.  The  context  shows  that  "  imj^uting 
righteousness  without  works"  is  the  equivalent  of  justifica- 
tion. Imputing  righteousness  without  works  does  not  mean 
transformation  of  character.  Neither,  therefore,  does  justi- 
fication :  both  are  forensic  forms  of  expression. 

(e)  The  word  "justify  "  is  used  as  the  opposite  of  "  con- 
demn." Rom.  viii.  33,  34  :  "  It  is  God  that  justifieth  ;  who 
is  he  that  condemneth  ?"  T-o  condemn  is  not  to  make  sin- 
ful ;  to  justify  is  not  to  make  holy. 

2.  More  than  Pardon. — Arminians,  as  we  have  said, 
regard  justification  as  synonymous  with  pardon.*  Rutin 
this  they  err. 

(a)  Because  the  word  dikaioo  does  not  mean  **  to  par- 
don," and  cannot  be  so  translated. 

(6)  It  is  fair  to  suppose  that  if  Paul  had  meant  "  par- 
don "  where  he  says  "justified,"  he  would  have  said  that 
we  are  pardo7ied  by  f&ith,  pardoned  without  works,  and  that 
being  pardoned  we  have  peace  with  God  ;  but  he  did  not. 

(c)  The  word  dikaioo  means  to  pronounce  righteous.f 
Pardon  is  therefore  included  in  the  justification  of  a  sinner, 
since  he  cannot  be  pronounced  righteous  in  the  sight  of  the 

■^  Justification  is  a  "remission  of  sins,"  "a  sentence  of  pardon." 
—  Watson's  Institutes,  Part  II.,  chap.  23. 

The  plain  scriptural  notion  of  justification  is  pardon,  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins. —  Wesley's  Works,  vol.  i.,  p.  47. 

t  Vide  Crerner,  Bibllco-Theologiccd  Lexicon  of  New  Testament 
Greek. 


•272  peefabinli  to  teach. 

law  so   long  as  he  is  under  condemnation.     He  may   be 
pardoned,  however,  without  being  pronounced  righteous. 

(d)  The  effects  of  j  ustification  are  such  as  would  not 
follow  pardon.  It  is  one  thing  to  remit  a  penalty,  and  an- 
other thing  to  receive  into  favor  and  to  give  entrance  into 
eternal  life.  Suppose  that  God  should  pardon  a  man,  and 
leave  the  acceptance  of  him  and  his  title  to  heaven  to 
depend  on  his  subsequent  behavior.  Would  pardon  bring 
peace?  Could  he  feel  that  he  was  reconciled  to  God? 
Could  he  have  any  assurance  of  salvation  ?  No.  And  if 
justification  is  the  equivalent  of  pardon,  how  does  it  happen 
that  the  justified  person  has  "  peace  with  God,"  is  "recon- 
ciled to  God,"  '*  hath  eternal  life,"  "  is  persuaded  that  noth- 
ing shall  separate  him  from  the  love  of  God,"  "  is  accepted 
in  the  beloved  "  ?  The  effects  ascribed  to  justification  can  be 
explained  only  on  the  supposition  that  justification  effects  a 
permanent,  unalterable  change  in  our  legal  condition,  and 
that  it  includes  not  only  the  pardon  of  our  sins,  but  the 
acceptance  of  us  as  righteous  in  the  sight  of  God. 

II.  The  Ground  of  Justification. 

What  is  that  to  which  God  has  regard  when  he  justifies 
us  ?  Is  it  something  within  us  or  something  without  us  ? 
Is  the  ground  of  our  justification  subjective  or  objective  f 
The  opinions  which  are  entertained  on  this  subject  may  be 
grouped  under  these  heads. 

1.  Subjective. — If  God  pronounces  men  righteous,  it 
must  be  on  the  ground  of  an  inherent  or  a  vicarious  right- 
eousness. In  the  controversy  between  the  Romanists  and 
the  Reformers  this  fact  Vv^as  recognized,  the  Romanists  affirm- 
ing that  we  are  justified  on  the  ground  of  an  inherent  or 
infused  righteousness.  According  to  their  scheme,  the  vica- 
rious sacrifice  of  Christ  procures  for  us  the  taking  away  of 
original  sin  and  the  infusion  of  righteousness.  This  takes 
place  in  baptism,  which  is  the  instrumental  cause.     And  )♦ 


SU3fMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  273 

is  to  this  remission  of  sin  and  renewal  of  nature  tliat  they 
give  the  name  justification.  When  asked,  however,  on 
what  ground  God  justifies  the  sinner,  the  answer  is :  On  the 
ground  of  inherent  or  infused  righteousness  received  in 
baptism. 

The  ground  of  justification  according  to  the  older  Ar- 
rainians  was  faith,  and  faith  included  or  was  synonymous 
with  evangelical  obedience.  They  believed  that  the  atone- 
ment of  Christ  had  the  effect  of  lowering  the  requirements 
of  the  law,  and  that  God,  instead  of  requiring  of  us  full 
obedience  to  the  Adamic  law,  was  pleased  to  count  our 
faith — that  is  to  say,  evangelical  obedience — in  the  room 
of  righteousness. 

The  Socinian  doctrine  of  justification  proceeds  upon  the 
idea  that  God  is  a  Father.  It  ignores  the  obligations  of 
God's  law,  and  denies  therefore  the  divinity  of  Christ's 
person  and  the  expiatory  nature  of  his  work.  It  reduces  the 
gospel  to  the  simple  statement  that  God  forgives  on  the 
ground  of  our  faith  and  repentance. 

2.  Objective. — Those  who  hold  the  subjective  view  as 
to  the  ground  of  justification  agree  in  the  opinion  that  when 
God  pardons  a  sinner  it  is  the  state  of  the  sinner's  mind  to 
which  He  has  respect.  In  other  words,  that  it  is  on  the 
ground  of  something  in  the  sinner  himself.  The  objective 
view  is  the  opposite  of  this.  Those  who  hold  it  maintain 
that  we  are  justified  on  the  ground  of  what  Christ  has 
done,  and  not  on  the  ground  of  what  we  do. 

The  Wesleyau  Armiuians  belong  to  this  class.  Justifica- 
tion is  defined  by  them  to  be  pardon ;  and  pardon,  they  are 
careful  to  say,  is  on  the  ground  of  the  righteousness  of  Christ.* 
It  is  true  that  our  subsequent  acceptance  with  God  and  our 
title  to  heaven  is,  according  to  them,  based  on  our  evan- 
gelical obedience  or  obedience  of  faith.  But  the  pardon  of 
our  sins  they  strenuously  affirm  to  be  on  the  ground  of  the 

^  "  Watsou's  Instilutcs,"  Part  II.,  chap.  23 


274  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

righteousness  of  Christ.  The  doctrine  of  the  Reformed  con- 
fessions, our  own  among  them,  is  that  we  are  justified  on  the 
ground  of  the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ.  The 
Shorter  Catechism  says  that  "Justification  is  an  act  of 
God's  free  grace,  wherein  he  pardoneth  all  our  sins,  and  ac- 
cepteth  us  as  righteous  in  his  sight,  only  for  the  righteousness 
of  Christ  imputed  to  us."  That  is  to  say,  God  regards 
Christ  as  the  substitute  of  his  people,  both  in  his  active 
and  in  his  passive  obedience.  His  death  is  their  death,  his 
righteousness  their  righteousness.  AVhen  God  pronounces 
men  righteous,  it  is  not  because  of  anything  in  them,  but  on 
the  ground  of  Christ's  righteousness  which  he  imputes  to 
them.  That  this  is  the  scriptural  view  is  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing considerations. 

(a)  To  justify   is   to   pronounce    righteous.      A,,-^ger^ct, 
righteousness,  therefore,  must  be  the  ground  of  justification. 


And  since  we  have  no  righteousness  of  our  own  which  will 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  law,  that  to  which  God  has 
regard  in  our  justification  must  be  a  vicarious  righteous- 
ness. 

(h)  The  statement  that  Abraham's  faith  was  counted 
unto  him  for  righteousness  does  not  mean  that  he  was  justi- 
fied on  the  ground  of  his  faith,  nor  does  it  sanction  the  doc- 
trine that  our  faith  or  evangelical  obedience  is  taken  in  lieu 
of  a  perfect  obedience  as  the  ground  of  our  justification. 
For  it  is  in  the  nature  of  the  ease  absurd  to  say  that  God  re- 
gards us  as  righteous  on  the  ground  of  conduct  which  is  un- 
righteous. Nor  will  it  do  to  say  that  the  demands  of  the 
law  are  lowered  through  the  work  of  Christ.  For  while  the 
Scriptures  represent  Christians  as  being  delivered  from  the 
law,  they  never  represent  the  law  itself  as  the  subject  of  any 
change.  We  have  peace  with  God  because  the  demands  of 
the  law  have  been  met,  and  not  because  its  behests  have 
been  made  easier.  If  the  law  has  been  lowered  at  all,  to 
what  extent  has  it  b^en  lowered?     And  if  our  justification 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  275 

depends  on  our  obedience,  what  is  the  measure  of  obedience 
necessary  ?  and  how  shall  we  know  when  we  have  attained 
it  ?  And  until  we  know,  what  is  the  ground  of  our  peace  ? 
Besides,  this  view,  as  Dr.  Hodge  says,  "  is  dishonoring  to  the 
gospel.  It  supposes  the  gospel  to  be  less  holy  than  the  law. 
The  law  requires  perfect  obedience;  the  gospel  is  satisfied 
with  imperfect  obedience."*  "  Do  we  then  make  void  the 
law  through  faith  ?     God  forbid ;  yea,  we  establish  the  law." 

3.  It  is  distinctly  stated  that  we  are  justified  by  faith 
without  the  works  of  the  law,  and  that  by  the  deeds  of  the 
law  there  shall  no  flesh  be  justified  in  his  sight.  Both  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  in  that  to  the  Galatians 
Paul  argues  that  justification  is  not  on  the  ground  of  any- 
thing which  we  can  do,  but  on  the  ground  of  what  Christ 
has  done  for  us. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  our  Catechism  is  necessarily  involved 
in  the  vicarious  character  of  Christ's  work.  If  Christ  died, 
"  the  just  for  the  unjust,  that  he  might  reconcile  us  to  God," 
if  he  came  "  to  give  his  life  a  ransom  for  (in  the  place  of) 
many,"  if  he  was  "  made  sin  for  us,"  if  he  was  "  made  a 
curse  for  us," — in  a  word,  if  the  death  of  Christ  was  penal 
and  vicarious,  as  the  Scriptures  abundantly  teach,  then  it 
would  follow  that  when  God  justifies  the  ungodly  he  has 
regard  to  the  work  which  Christ  has  done  in  our  room  and 
stead.  1 

5.  But  the  doctrine  of  the  Catechism  is  sustained  by  the  / 
direct  testimony  of  Scripture.  We  are  "  justified  by  his  ' 
blood."  Bom.  V.  9.  God  hath  set  him  forth  "to  be  a  pro- 
})itiation  through  faith  in  his  blood,  to  declare  his  righteous- 
ness for  the  remission  of  sins  that  are  past  through  the  for- 
bearance of  God,  .  .  .  that  he  might  be  just,  and  the  jus- 
tifier  of  him  that  believeth  in  Jesus."  Bom.  iii.  25,  26. 
"Therefore,  as  by  the  ofience  of  one  judgment  came  upon 
all  men  to  condemnation,  even  so  by  the  righteousness  of 

*  "Systematic  Theology,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  169. 


276  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

one  the  free  gift  came  upon  all  men  to  justification  of  life. 
For  as  by  one  man's  disobedience  many  were  made  sinners, 
so  by  the  obedience  of  one  shall  many  be  made  righteous." 
Kom.  V.  18,  19. 

Paul,  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Romans,  complains  of  his 
brethren  because  they  seek  to  be  justified  by  their  own 
righteousness :  "  For  they  being  ignorant  of  God's  right- 
eousness, and  going  about  to  establish  their  own  righteous- 
ness, have  not  submitted  themselves  unto  the  righteousness 
of  God.  For  Christ  is  the  end  of  the  law  for  righteousness 
to  every  one  that  believeth."  He  speaks  of  the  blessedness 
of  the  man  to  whom  God  imputeth  righteousness  without 
works  (Rom  iv.  6),  and  in  Philippians  he  expresses  his  desire 
to  "be  found  in  him,  not  having  mine  own  righteousness 
which  is  of  the  law,  but  that  which  is  through  the  faith  of 
Christ,  the  righteousness  which  is  of  God  by  faith." 

To  the  question  with  which  this  chapter  opens  we  reply 
by  saying  that  we  enter  heaven  on  the  ground  of  the  im- 
puted righteousness  of  Christ. 

« 
"Slain  in  the  guilty  sinner's  stead, 

His  spotless  righteousness  I  plead, 

And  his  availing  blood  ; 
Thy  merit,  Lord,  my  robe  shall  be, 
Thy  merit  shall  atone  for  me. 

And  bring  me  near  to  God." 

III.  The  Means  of  Justification. 

We  are  justified  by  faith.  All  Christians  will  accept 
this  statement.  All  will  not  say,  however,  that  we  are 
justified  by  faith  alone,  nor  would  ail  give  the  same  answer 
to  the  question,  How  does  faith  justify?  These  points  must 
now  be  noticed. 

1.  Justification  by  faith  alone. 

The  Bible  says  we  are  justified  by  faith.     Are  we  justi- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  277 

fied  by  anything  else  ?     Is  anything  in  addition  to  faith 
necessary  in  order  to  justification  ? 

Our  catechism  says  that  we  are  justified  by  the  "  righteous- 
ness of  Christ  imputed  to  us  and  received  by  faith  alone." 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible.     Paul  says  that  we  are 
justified  by  faith  without  the  works  of  the  law  ;  that  by  the 
deeds  of  the  law  shall  no  flesh  be  justified.     By  works  he 
does  not  mean  the  ceremonial  law  or  works  done  before  re- 
generation.    His  doctrine  is  that  Jew  and  Gentile  are  alike 
under  condemnation  because  they  have  violated  the  law  of 
God,  and  that,  being  under  condemnation,  they  can  do  noth- 
ing to  justify  themselves;    for  the  law   requires  a  perfect 
obedience,  and  this  they  cannot  render.     In  excluding  works 
from  justification  he  excludes  everything  which  we  can  do. 
He  excludes  faith  itself  so  far  as  it  is  a  work  and  lays 
claim  to  merit.     We  are  not  justified   by  works:   we  are 
justified  by  faith.     There  is  no  discrepancy  between  Paul 
and  James,  though  the  latter  says  that  Abraham  was  jus- 
tified by  works,  and  adds,  "  Ye  see,  then,  how  that  by  works 
a  man  is  justified,  and  not  by  faith  only."     Because  (a) 
James  is  showing   the  relation   of  works  to  faith,  and  is 
not  discussing  the  question  of  justification.     Saving  faith  is 
followed  by  good  works  ;  where  these  are  wanting  faith  is 
dead,     (b)  James  cannot  mean  that  Abraham  was  pardoned 
and  accepted  when  he  offered  Isaac  his  son,  for  he  had  been 
pardoned  and  accepted  long  before.* 

2.  Relation  of  faith  to  justification. 

Men  may  use  the  same  language  and  mean  very  different 
things.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  matter  before  us.  The 
Komanist  believes  that  we  are  justified  by  faith.  But  what 
does  he  mean  ?  He  has  two  faiths  and.  two  justifications. 
In  his  first  justification  original  sin  is  removed  and  right- 
eousness infused.   This  takes  place  in  baptism.    He  believes 

*  See  Cunningham's  "Historical  Theology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  66;  "Bu- 
chanan on  Justification,"  pp.  239-249. 
24 


278  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

that  he  ought  to  be  baptized  ;  and  that  being  baptized,  he  ig 
justified.  In  this  sense  he  is  justified  by  faith  as  a  pre- 
disponent  to  justification.  This  faith  is  only  intellectual 
assent,  yic/es  informis.  In  his  second  justification  he  receives 
title  to  eternal  life,  and  on  the  ground  of  his  "works" — 
that  is  to  say,  of  his  character.  Prominent  among  these 
"  works  "  is  "  faith."  But  the  word  faith  as  now  employed 
does  not  mean  intellectual  assent.  It  is  synonymous  with 
love.     This  is  fides  formata.^ 

The  older  Arminians  believed  that  we  are  justified  on  ac- 
count of  our  faith.  Faith  they  considered  as  synonymous 
with  evangelical  obedience,  and  was  regarded  by  them  as 
imputed  to  us  in  the  room  of  righteousness.^  Wesleyan 
Arminians  say  that  we  are  justified — meaning  pardoned — on 
condition  of  faith. 

Those  who  hold  the  moral-influence  theory  of  the  atone- 
ment believe  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  ;  but  justification 
means  personal  holiness,  and  faith  justifies  because  it  stim- 
ulates to  Christian  activity.  Faith  is  the  secret  of  success. 
Have  faith  in  a  cause  if  you  wish  to  conquer.  Faith  saves, 
because  by  it  we  overcome  sin.  The  principle  is  true,  but 
the  adoption  of  it  as  an  explanation  of  the  gospel  is  a  funda- 
mental error.  In  opposition  to  these  views  our  standards 
teach  that  "faith  justifies  a  sinner  in  the  sight  of  God,  not 
because  of  those  other  graces  which  do  always  accompany 
it,  or  of  good  works  that  are  the  fruit  of  it;  nor  as  if  the 
grace  of  faith  or  any  act  thereof  were  imputed  to  him  for 
justification;  but  only  as  tt  is  an  instrument  by  which  he 
receiveth  and  applieth  Christ  and  his  righteousness." — 
Larger  Catechism,  Q.  73. 

*  Hodge,  "  Systematic  Theology,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  105. 


SmiMAEY  OF  DOCTRINE.  279 

IV.  The  Effect  of  Justification. 

From  what  has  been  said  respecting  the  nature  and  the 
ground  of  justification  it  will  be  easy  to  infer  what  opinions 
are  entertained  respecting  the  effect  of  justification.  The 
Roman  Catholic  believes  that  the  justification  which  he  re- 
ceives in  baptism  places  him  in  the  condition  which  Adam 
occupied  before  the  fall.  It  does  not  secure  his  continuance 
in  that  state,  how^ever.  His  post-baptismal  sins  render  him 
liable  to  eternal  death  if  mortal,  and  to  the  fires  of  purgatory 
\i  venial.  To  escape  eternal  death  and  to  mitigate  the  pun- 
ishments of  purgatory,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  make 
proper  satisfaction  in  this  life.  It  is  a  doctrine  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  that  a  man  may  exceed  the  amount  of 
praying,  fasting  and  almsgiving  requisite  as  a  satisfaction 
for  his  own  sins,  and  thus  have  something  over  which  may 
be  used  for  the  benefit  of  others.  The  Church  of  Rome 
made  merchandise  of  this  excess  in  the  iniquitous  system 
of  indulgences,  the  exposure  of  which  led  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  Arminiaus  believe  that  justification  is  pardon, 
but  that  it  secures  no  permanent  change  in  our  condition, 
and  gives  no  title  to  heaven.  Our  acceptance  depends  on 
our  persevering  to  the  end,  and  our  salvation  will  be  the 
reward  of  our  obedience."^ 

The  doctrine  of  the  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  churches  is 
that  justification  is  a  p.ermanent  change  of  legal  condition. 
The  justified  person  is  no  longer  subject  to  condemnation. 
He  is  saved.  He  hath  eternal  life.  This  is  one  eflTect  of 
justification.  And,  moreover,  justification  is  always  fol- 
lowed by  sanctification.     Hence  the  Reformers,  when  they 

*  "In  asserting  salvation  by  faith  we  mean  this:  (1)  That  pardon 
(salvation  begun)  is  received  by  faith  producing  works.  (2)  That 
holiness  (salvation  continued)  is  faith  working  by  love.  (3)  That 
heaven  (salvation  finished)  is  the  reward  of  this  faith." — Wesley's 
"  Works,"  vol.  v.,  p.  205. 


/ 


•280  PREPABINO  TO  TEACH. 

affirmed  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  alone,  were  careful  to 
Bay  that  the  faith  which  justifies  was  never  by  itself.  It 
was  a  fides  sola,  not  a  fides  solitaria.  Good  works  are  the 
evidence  and  the  eflTect  of  saving  faith.  This  must  be  so; 
for  we  know  that  without  holiness  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord ;  and  we  know  too  that  whom  he  justifies,  them  he 
also  glorifies. 


ZESSOJV  nil, 

EEGENEEATION. 


What  is  faith  ?  Belief.  But  belief  is  assent  when  it 
terminates  on  a  proposition  and  trust  when  it  terminates  on 
a  person.  I  assent  to  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration  ; 
Vl  trust  in  Christ.  The  Romanists,  regarding  faith  as  assent, 
Vere  in  the  habit  of  charging  the  Reformers  with  believing 
that  men  are  saved  by  bare  intellectual  assent.  The  latter, 
however,  maintained  that  saving  faith  included  trust  as  well  \ 
as  assent ;  and  this  is  the  doctrine  of  our  standards.  From 
this  definition  of  faith  the  necessity  of  both  the  external 
and  the  internal  call  may  be  inferred.  The  external  call  ia 
necessary  to  faith.  For  says  the  apostle,  "  How  shall  thciy 
believe  in  him  of  whom  they  have  not  heard  V  The  gos- 
pel must  be  preached  and  the  oflTer  of  salvation  must  be 
made  before  men  can  believe.  But  is  the  presentation 
of  the  truth  through  the  Word  sufficient  ?  Are  men  will- 
ing to  accept  Christ  as  their  Saviour  even  although  the 
claims  of  the  gospel  are  pressed  upon  their  attention  ?  We 
have  found  that  men  are  "  indisposed,  disabled,  made  oppo- 
site to  all  good  and  wholly  inclined  to  all  evil."  This  is 
their  condition  by  nature.  While  they  remain  in  this  con- 
dition can  they  exercise  faith?  Can  they  rest  on  Christ 
alone   for   salvation?     Sin,  we   found,  has   produced   two 


SUiMMAEY  OF  DOCTRINE,  281 

great  results.  It  has  made  mau  guilty.  A  scheme  of  sal- 
vation must  therefore  provide  for  his  deliverance  from  con- 
demnation. We  have  seen  how  this  was  done.  But  sin 
has  likewise  debased  our  nature ;  it  has  caused  spiritual 
death.  A  scheme  of  salvation  must  provide  also  for  our 
change  of  nature.  This  moral  change  is  necessary  in  order 
that  we  may  avail  ourselves  of  the  remedy  provided  for  our 
legal  liabilities.  For  to  be  justified  we  must  have  faith. 
But  there  is  a  barrier  to  the  exercise  of  faith — to  wit :  that 
we  are  spiritually  dead.  Now,  it  is  the  work  of  the  Spirit 
to  effect  the  moral  change  whereby  we  are  persuaded  and 
enabled  to  embrace  Jesus  Christ  freely  offered  to  us  in  the 
gospel.  This  change  he  accomplishes  in  "  effectual  calling," 
and  the  result  itself  is  termed  regeneration.  We  are  to 
consider  regeneration  first  as  to  its  nature  and  secondly  as 
to  its  mode. 

I.  Nature  of  Regeneration. 

(  It  is  an  instantaneous,  radical  and  permanent  change  in 
the  moral  nature,  in  virtue  of  which  the  subject  is  said  to 
be  born  again,  to  be  a  new  creature,  to  be  raised  from  the 
dead.  It  is  instantaneous,  for  it  is  a  transition  from  death 
to  life  ;  it  is  radical  for  the  same  reason  ;  it  is  permanent, 
for  the  life  imparted  in  regeneration  is  immortal.  Whom 
he  calls  he  justifies,  whom  he  justifies  he  glorifies.  The 
change  affects  the  whole  soul.  The  mind  is  enlightened  in 
the  knowledge  of  Christ,  the  will  is  renewed,  and  we  are 
persuaded  and  enabled  to  embrace  Jesus  Christ  freely  of- 
fered to  us  in  the  gospel.  It  follows,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  that  the  soul  is  passive  in  regeneration.  A  dead  man 
cannot  be  instrumental  in  his  own  resurrection.  The  soul 
is  regenerated  ;  it  never  regenerates  itself  We  are  com- 
manded to  repent,  but  not  to  be  regenerated.  Regenera- 
tion is  necessary  to  salvation,  but  it  is  not  a  duty.  This 
view  of  regeneration  is  proved — 

24* 


282  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

1.  From  the  doctrine  of  total  depravity.  If  it  is  true, 
this  follows  of  necessity. 

2.  This  is  taught  in  the  second  chapter  of  E^^hesians, 
where  spiritual  life,  as  the  antithesis  of  spiritual  death,  is  at- 
tributed to  divine  power :  "  But  God,  who  is  rich  in  mercy, 
for  his  great  love  wherewith  he  hath  loved  us  when  we  were 
dead  in  sins,  hath  quickened  us  together  with  Christ  (by 
grace  ye  are  saved),  and  hath  raised  us  up  together,  and 
made  us  sit  together  in  heavenly  places  in  Christ  Jesus." 

3.  It  is  involved  in  other  statements  of  Scripture :  We 
must  be  born  again.  "If  any  man  be  in  Christ,  he  is  a  new 
creature."  "  We  are  his  workmanship."  It  follows,  there- 
fore— 

(a)  That  regeneration  is  not  a  change  of  external  relation. 
This  was  Archbishop  Whately's  view,  and  it  is  the  view  of 
others  in  the  Church  of  England,  who  understand  baptismal 
regeneration  to  mean  nothing  more  than  that  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  baptism  the  subject  becomes  externally  related  to 
the  Church. 

(6)  It  is  not  a  change  of  purpose,  as  theologians  of  the 
New  Haven  school  suppose;  for  the  "purpose"  presupposes 
the  moral  change  in  which  regeneration  consists. 

(c)  It  is  not  moral  reformation.  Birth  is  different  from 
growth.  Kesurrection  is  different  from  the  life  which  fol- 
lows it.  Spiritual  growth  follows  regeneration,  but  regen- 
eration is  the  word  which  expresses  the  change  from  death 
to  life. 

{d)  Nor  is  regeneration  the  same  as  conversion.  The 
regenerated  person  turns  to  God — ^.  e.,  is  converted.  The 
soul  is  active  in  conversion,  passive  in  regeneration.  Con- 
version is  the  fruit  of  regeneration. 

II.  The  Mode  of  Kegeneeation. 
The  agent  in  regeneration  is  the  third  Person  of  the  bless- 
ed and  adorable  Trinity.     "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  list- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  283 

eth  and  thou  hearest  the  sound  thereof,  but  canst  not  tell 
whence  it  cometh  or  whither  it  goeth.  So  is  every  one  that 
is  born  of  the  Spirit."  John  iii.  8.  "  Not  by  works  of  right- 
eousness which  we  have  done,  but  according  to  his  mercy 
he  saved  us  by  the  washing  of  regeneration  and  renewing 
of  the  Holy  Ghost."  Tit.  iii.  4,  5. 

The  doctrine  is  stated  by  the  Confession  of  Faith  in  the 
following  terms:  "All  those  whom  God  hath  predestinated 
unto  life,  and  those  only,  he  is  pleased,  in  his  appointed  and 
accepted  time,  effectually  to  call  by  his  word  and  Spirit  out 
of  that  state  of  sin  and  death  in  which  they  are  by  nature, 
to  grace  and  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ ;  enlightening  their 
minds  spiritually  and  savingly  to  understand  the  things 
of  God,  taking  away  their  heart  of  stone,  and  giving  unto 
them  an  heart  of  flesh ;  renewing  their  wills,  and  by  his 
almighty  power  determining  them  to  that  which  is  good, 
and  effectually  drawing  them  to  Jesus  Christ ; '  yet  so  as 
they  come  most  freely,  being  made  willing  by  his  grace. 
This  effectual  call  is  of  God's  free  and  special  grace  alone, 
not  from  anything  at  all  foreseen  in  man,  who  is  altogether 
passive  therein,  until,  being  quickened  and  renewed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  he  is  thereby  enabled  to  answer  this  call,  and 
to  embrace  the  grace  offered  and  conveyed  in  it." — Con- 
fession of  Faith,  chap,  x.,  §  1,  2. 

The  agency  of  the  Spirit  in  regenemtion  is  immediate, 
sovereign  and  efficacious. 

1.  Immediate. — The  change  wrought  in  regeneration  is 
through  the  direct  exercise  of  divine  power.  Lutherans 
dispute  this  proposition.  They  do  not  believe  in  the  oper- 
ation of  the  Spirit  except  through  the  Word.  They  hold 
that  there  is  virtue  in  the  AVord  which,  if  not  resisted,  will 
result  in  the  conversion  of  those  to  whom  it  is  preached. 
This,  however,  cannot  be  the  true  state  of  the  case,  for  the 
objective  presentation  of  the  truth  to  a  man  spiritually 
dead  is  surely  not  sufficient.     Besides,  the  Scriptures  dis- 


28-i  PREIARIJSG   TO   TEACH. 

tinctly  say  that  it  is  not  sufficieut,  for  they  affirm  that 
"  the  natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  neither  can  he  know  them,  because  they  are  spiritually 
discerned."  1  Cor.  ii.  14.  The  Scriptures  distinguish,  more- 
over, between  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  and  that  of  the 
Word.  "  Who,  then,  is  Paul,  and  who  is  ApoUos,  but  min- 
isters by  whom  ye  have  believed,  even  as  the  Lord  gave  to 
every  man  ?  I  have  planted,  Apollos  watered,  but  God 
gave  the  increase."  1  Cor.  iii.  5,  6.  That  the  influence  of 
the  Spirit  in  regeneration  is  by  direct  agency,  and  not 
through  the  moral  influence  of  the  truth,  is  seen  in  passages 
like  the  following :  "  For  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  you 
both  to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good  pleasure."  Phil.  ii.  13. 
"  In  meekness  instructing  those  that  oppose  themselves : 
if  God  perad venture  will  give  them  repentance  to  the 
acknowledging  of  the  truth."  2  Tim.  ii.  25. 

2.  Sovereign. — Regeneration  is  a  sovereign  act  of  God's 
Spirit,  who  works  Avhen  and  where  he  pleases.  It  is  not  on 
the  ground  of  anything  that  a  man  does,  or  that  God  fore- 
sees he  will  do,  that  he  regenerates  him.  Romanists,  and 
those  who  hold  high  sacramentarian  views,  maintain  that 
baptism  is  necessary  to  regeneration.  This  dogma  is  both 
extra-scriptural  and  unscriptural,  however.  The  Bible 
does  not  teach  baptismal  regeneration,  but  it  teaches  the 
contrary.  Baptism,  we  know,  does  not  secure  salvation ; 
regeneration  does.  Whom  he  calls  (regenerates)  he  justi- 
fies, whom  he  justifies  he  glorifies.  The  salvation  of  infants 
IS  not  jeoparded  by  neglect  of  baptism.  But  "  elect  in- 
fants, dying  in  infancy"  (and  we  believe  that  all  infants 
dying  in  infancy  are  elect),  "are  regenerated  and  saved 
by  Christ  through  the  Spirit,  who  worketh  when  and  where 
and  how  he  pleaseth." — Confession  of  Faith,  chap,  x.,  §  3. 

3.  Efficacious. — Regeneration  is  the  result  of  a  direct 
exercise  of  divine  power.  The  soul  is  passive.  There  can 
be  L.0  co-working  in  regeneration.     This  view  is  opposed  by 


SUMMARY  OF  DOvlMINE.  285 

those  who  hold  Semi-Pelagian  views  respecting  sin,  and  who 
maintain  that  the  work  of  the  Spirit  in  regeneration  con- 
sists in  moral  suasion.  The  best  way  to  reply  to  this  view 
is  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  original  sin.  A  dead  man  is  not 
in  a  position  to  be  influenced  by  moral  suasion.  Besides,  it 
is  strange  that  the  Scriptures  should  say  that  we  are  created 
in  Christ  Jesus  unto  good  works,  that  we  are  born  of  the 
Spirit,  and  that  we  are  raised  from  the  dead,  if  they  meant 
only  to  teach  that  the  Spirit  presents  arguments  and  motives 
for  our  consideration.  The  Arminians  believe  in  total  de- 
pravity, but  maintain  that  the  Spirit  of  God  is  present 
with  every  man,  granting  him  sufficient  grace  to  enable  him 
to  attain  eternal  life,  and  that  the  difference  between  a  be- 
liever and  an  unbeliever  is  that  one  co-operates,  and  the 
other  does  not  co-operate,  with  the  Spirit  of  God.  To 
which  it  is  enough  to  reply  that  if  men  are  dead  they  cannot 
co-operate,  and  if  they  are  alive  they  need  not  co-operate, 
for  they  are  already  regenerated. 

Regeneration  is  God's  act ;  conversion  is  man's.  Con- 
version follows  regeneration,  and  is  evidenced  by  faith  and 
repentance. 

"Faith  in  Jesus  Christ  is  a  saving  grace  whereby  we 
receive  and  rest  upon  him  alone  for  salvation  as  he  is 
offered  to  us  in  the  gospel." 

"  Repentance  unto  life  is  a  saving  grace  whereby  a  sin- 
ner, out  of  a  true  sense  of  his  sin  and  apprehension  of  the 
mercy  of  God  in  Christ,  doth,  with  grief  and  hatred  of  sin, 
turn  from  it  unto  God,  with  full  purpose  of  and  endeavor 
afler  new  obedience."  * 

*  "Shorter  Catechism,"  Q.  86,  87. 


^86  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

LESSOJf  IX. 
ELECTION. 

To  be  saved  we  must  be  justified  ;  to  be  justified  we  must 
believe  ;  to  believe  we  must  be  regenerated.  God  regener- 
ates. All  regenerated  persons  are  saved.  Those  who  die 
unregenerated  perish.  Thus  we  are  led  to  a  consideration 
of  the  doctrine  of  election.  On  this  subject  two  contra- 
dictory opinions  are  entertained.  Calvinists  affirm,  Ar- 
minians  deny,  that  God  for  his  own  glory  has  from  all 
eternity  elected  some  to  everlasting  life.  Every  man  who 
has  an  opinion  on  this  subject  must  be,  at  least  so  far  as 
this  doctrine  is  concerned,  an  Arminian  or  a  Calvinist.* 

I.  Arminian  View. 

Arminians  agree  in  saying  that  the  Bible  speaks  of  an 
election  of  some  sort.  They  agree  in  saying  that  it  does 
not  teach  the  doctrine  of  a  sovereign  election  of  individuals 
to  eternal  life.  But  they  are  not  agreed  in  respect  to  whai 
the  Bible  doctrine  of  election  is.  They  fall  into  two 
classes. 

1.  Those  who  maintain  that  the  election  spoken  of  in 
the  Bible  is  an  election  to  the  external  privileges  of  the 
Church.  God,  they  say,  has  shed  gospel  light  on  some 
parts  of  the  world  and  kept  the  remainder  in  darkness.  He 
has  elected  some  to  the  enjoyment  of  Christian  privileges, 
while  others  are  in  a  state  of  heathenism.  This  election 
does  not  secure  salvation,  though  it  confers  great  advan- 
tages on  those  who  are  the  subjects  of  it.f     But  it  is  very 

*  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  point,  see  Principal  Cunninglinm's 
masterly  essay  on  Calvinism  and  Arminianism  in  his  "Keformers 
and  Theology  of  the  Reformation." 

f  "So,  also,  we  may  conclude  no  Christian  is  elected  to  eternal 
salvation  alsoh'tely,  but  only  to  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel,  to  the 


SUM3IABY  OF  DOCTRINE.  287 

clear  that  the  election  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  an  election 
which  secures  salvation.  Whom  God  predestinates  he  calls, 
v.'hora  he  calls  he  justifies,  whom  he  justifies  he  glorifies. 
It  is  an  election  of  those  "  whom  he  had  afore  prepared 
unto  glory,"  "  whom  he  had  chosen,  that  they  should  be 
holy  and  without  blame,"  of  those  whom  he  had  "  predes- 
tinated to  be  conformed  to  the  image  of  his  Son."  This  the- 
ory of  election  does  not  explain  the  facts,  and  therefore 
falls  to  the  ground. 

2.  Those  who  maintain  that  God  elects  to  everlasting 
life  those  who,  he  foresees,  will  repent  and  believe  in  Christ. 
But  this  view  is  equally  unsatisfactory;  for  so  far  from 
our  election  proceeding  on  the  ground  of  a  foreseen  faith, 
faith  itself  is  the  gift  of  God.  God  does  not  elect  us  be- 
cause he  foresees  that  we  shall  repent  and  persevere  in  holi- 
ness, inasmuch  as  the  reason  that  we  have  repented  is  that 
he  "  hath  granted  "  unto  us  "  repentance  unto  life  ;"  and  the 
reason  that  we  persevere  is  that  we  are  "  created  in  Christ 
Jesus  unto  good  works."  Election  is  not  on  the  ground  of 
a  foreseen  faith,  but  on  account  of  God's  good  pleasure, 
"who  hath  saved  us  and  called  us  with  an  holy  calling,  not 
according  to  works,  but  according  to  his  own  purpose  and 
grace,  which  was  giyen  us  in  Christ  Jesus  before  the  world 
began."  2  Tim.  i.  9. 

II.  Calvinistic  View. 

The  Calvinistic  doctrine  assumes  three  forms. 

1.  SuPRALAPSARiAN. — According  to  this  view,  the  decree 
of  election  takes  precedence  of  the  decree  of  creation. 
Out  of  the  mass  of  creatable  men  God  elects  some  and 
reprobates   others  for   his  own   glory.     To  carry  out  this 

privileges  of  the  Christian  Church,  to  the  offer  of  God's  Holy 
Spirit,  and  to  the  promise  of  final  salvation  on  condition  of  being  a 
faithful  follower  of  Christ." — Whately's  "  Essay  on  Ceitain  Difficul- 
ties in  the  "Writings  of  St.  Paul." 


288  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

decree  he  created  man  and  permitted  him  to  fall.  This 
view  is  not  commonly  entertained.  It  presents  metaphys- 
ical difficulties  to  begin  with.*  It  is  unsupported  by  the 
word  of  God,  and  contrary  to  it.  It  requires  us  to  believe 
that  God  has  reprobated  some  of  the  human  race  without 
regard  to  their  sins,  whereas  the  Scriptures  teach  that, 
while  God  saves  some  out  of  his  mere  good  pleasure,  those 
who  are  passed  by  are  punished  on  account  of  their  sins. 

2.  SuBLAPSARiAN. — The  advocates  of  this  view  main- 
tain that  the  decree  of  election  contemplates  man  as  fallen. 
Out  of  the  mass  of  fallen  humanity  God  has  predestinated 
some,  they  say,  to  eternal  life.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  our 
standards,  and,  we  believe,  of  the  Scriptures.  "  God  hav- 
mg,  out  of  his  mere  good  pleasure,  from  all  eternity 
elected  some  to  everlasting  life,  did  enter  into  a  covenant 
of  grace,  to  deliver  them  out  of  the  estate  of  sin  and 
misery,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  state  of  salvation  by  a 
Kedeemer."  f 

3.  Infralapsarian. — This  is  the  view  which  was  ad- 
vocated by  the  French  Protestant  theologians  at  Saumur 
"  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century." 
It  contemplates  man  not  only  as  created  and  fallen,  but  as 
redeemed.  Its  advocates  say  that  God  decreed  to  create 
man  ;  to  permit  the  fall  ;  to  provide  a  salvation  for  all  men 
through  Jesus  Christ  on  condition  of  faith  and  repentance; 
but,  foreseeing  that  none  would  accept  Christ,  that  he  de- 
creed to  give  faith  and  repentance  to  some.  This  view  in- 
volves a  denial  of  the  vicarious  nature  of  the  atonement, 
and  is  incompatible  with  the  doctrine  that  Christ  laid  down 
jiis  life  for  his  sheep. 

The  advocates  of  these  three  views  agree  in  affirming 
that  election  is  (1)  of  individuals,  (2)  to  eternal  life,  (3;  of 
God's  mere  good  pleasure  and  not  on  account  of  a  foreseen 

*  For  a  discussion  of  them,  see  Turretine,  loc.  iv.,  qusest.  ix. 
t  "  Shorter  Catechism,"  Q.  2a 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  289 

faith.  These  are  the  essential  elements  in  the  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  election.  This  doctrine  is  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing considerations : 

1.  It  follows  from  the  doctrine  of  regeneration.  This  is 
obvious. 

2.  Faith  and  repentance  are  gifts  of  God,  but  they  are 
necessary  to  salvation. 

3.  It  is  specifically  affirmed  in  Scripture :  "  Whom  he 
did  foreknow  he  also  did  predestinate  to  be  conformed  to 
the  image  of  his  Son,"  etc.  Rom.  viii.  29.  "  According  as 
he  hath  chosen  us  in  him  before  the  foundation  of  the 
world,  that  we  should  be  holy  and  without  blame,"  etc. 
Eph.  i,  4.  "  God  hath  from  the  beginning  chosen  you 
unto  salvation,"  etc.  2  Thess.  xi.  13. 

4.  It  is  proved  by  the  objection  which  Paul  answers  in 
the  ninth  chapter  of  Romans.  The  most  common  objection 
to  this  doctrine  is  that  it  destroys  responsibility.  This  is 
precisely  the  one  which  Paul  anticipates :  "  Thou  wilt  say 
then  unto  me,  Why  doth  he  yet  find  fault?  For  who  hath 
resisted  his  will  ?  Nay,  but,  O  man,  w^ho  art  thou  that 
repliest  against  God  ?  Shall  the  thing  formed  say  to  him 
that  formed  it,  Whv  hast  thou  made  me  thus?  Hath  not 
the  potter  power  over  the  clay  of  the  same  lump  to  make 
one  vessel  unto  honor  and  another  unto  dishonor?  What 
if  God,  willing  to  show  his  wrath  and  to  make  his  power 
known,  endured  with  much  long-suflTering  the  vessels  of 
wratli  fitted  to  destruction,  and  that  he  might  make  known 
the  riches  of  his  gh)ry  on  the  vessels  of  mercy  which  he 
liad  nfore  prepared  unto  glory  ?" 

5.  It  is  involved  in  the  doctrine  of  decrees.  The  Con- 
fession of  Faith  says,  chap.  iii. :  "  God  from  all  eternity  did 
by  the  most  wise  and  holy  counsel  of  his  own  will  freely 
and  unchangeably  ordain  whatsoever  comes  to  pass  ;  yet  so 
as  thereby  neither  is  God  the  author  of  sin,  nor  is  violence 
offered  to  the  will  of  the  creatures,  nor  is  the  liberty  or 

25 


290  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

contingency  of  second  causes  taken  away,  but  rather  estab- 
lished." 

Election  is  simply  part  of  God's  eternal  purpose.  That 
God's  purpose  is  eternal  and  that  it  extends  to  every  event 
the  Scriptures  clearly  teach.  God  notices  the  fall  of  a 
sparrow.  He  numbers  the  hairs  of  our  head.  He  disposes 
of  the  lot.  Every  good  and  perfect  gift  comes  from  him. 
He  directs  our  steps.  He  controls  the  free  acts  of  men, 
giving  faith,  granting  repentance  unto  life,  working  in  us 
to  will  and  to  do  of  his  good  pleasure.  The  wicked  acts  of 
men  are  foreordained  and  overruled.  Christ  was  delivered 
by  the  determinate  counsel  and  foreknowledge  of  God. 
Joseph's  brethren  were  carrying  out  God's  purpose  when 
they  sold  him  :  "  God  sent  me  before  you  to  preserve  you  a 
posterity  in  the  earth,  and  to  save  your  lives  by  a  great  de- 
liverance." Gen.  xlv.  7.  He  has  mercy  on  whom  he  will 
have  mercy,  and  whom  he  will  he  hardeneth.  Moreover, 
foreordination  is  involved  in  foreknowledge.  It  is  admitted 
by  all,  except  Socinians,  that  God  from  all  eternity  has 
fpreknown  whatsoever  comes  to  pass.  If  God  has  fore- 
known every  event,  then  every  event  has  been  fixed  and  de- 
termined from  all  eternity.  God  from  all  eternity  foresaw 
the  Crucifixion  of  Christ.  The  crucifixion  was  inevitable, 
therefore,  and  God  knew  from  all  eternity  that  it  would 
certainly  occur.  What  made  it  certain  ?  There  is  only 
one  answer :  It  formed  part  of  God's  eternal  purpose 
"  whereby  for  his  own  glory  he  hath  foreordained  whatsoever 
comes  to  pass." 

The  common  objecti(ms  to  this  doctrine  are — 
1.  That  it  represents  God  as  dealing  unjustly.  But  this 
is  not  the  case.  It  would  have  been  just  for  God  to  have 
left  the  world  to  perish  in  its  sins.  This  must  be  admit- 
ted if  the  atonement  is  believed  in.  There  is  no  need  of 
and  no  mercy  in  an  atonement  if  the  punishment  of  sin 
would  have  been  an  injustice.     But  if  God  might  justly 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  291 

have  left  the  whole  world  to  perish,  who  shall  challenge  hia 
prerogative  to  have  mercy  on  as  many  as  he  pleases  ? 

2.  It  is  said  to  destroy  free  agency.  This  must  be  be* 
cause  it  makes  our  actions  certain  ;  but  so  does  foreknow- 
ledge. If  certainty  is  incompatible  with  free  agency,  the 
objection  is  involved  against  foreordination,  as  foreknowledge 
is  foreordination.  Certainty  and  liberty  are  not  incompat- 
ible. God  is  free,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  will  not  do  wrong. 
Christ  was  free,  but  it  was  certain  that  he  would  not  sin. 

3.  It  is  said  to  make  the  r.se  of  means  unnecessary. 
Popularly  stated  :  "  If  I  am  to  be  saved,  I  shall  be  saved 
no  matter  what  I  am ;  if  I  am  to  be  lost,  I  shall  be  lost,  do 
what  I  may."  The  mistake  arises  out  of  the  fact  that  God's 
decree  embraces  every  event,  that  he  foreordains  the  means 
as  well  as  the  end.  If  God  decrees  the  salvation  of  a  soul, 
he  decrees  that  he  shall  hear,  heed  and  believe  the  gospel. 
In  like  manner,  if  God  decrees  that  there  shall  be  an  abun- 
dant  harvest,  he  decrees  that  the  farmer  shall  prepare  the 
soil,  sow  the  seed,  and  that  favorable  influences  shall  com- 
bine to  produce  the  result. 

What  practical  influence  should  the  doctrine  of  election 
exert  upon  the  children  of  God?  It  should  make  them 
humble :  "  By  the  grace  of  God  we  are  what  we  are."  It 
should  make  them  grateful,  for  what  have  we  that  we 
have  not  received?  It  should  make  them  confident,  for 
faith  is  the  pledge  that  God  hath  "  chosen  them  unto  sal- 
vation." 

"  Why  was  I  made  to  hear  thy  voice 
And  enter  while  there's  room, 
While  thousands  make  a  wretched  choice, 
And  ratlier  starve  than  come  ? 

"  'Twas  the  same  love  that  spread  the  feast 
That  sweetly  forced  me  in, 
Else  I  ha  i  still  refused  to  taste, 
And  perished  in  my  sin." 


292  FBEPABING  TO  TEACH. 


LESSOJf  X. 

SANCTIFICATION. 

Kegeneration  is  related  to  sanctification  as  birth  is  to 
growth.  The  soul's  new  life  begins  at  regeneration.  Its 
development  in  spiritual  strength  and  stature  is  its  sancti- 
fication. We  are  here  using  the  words  regeneration  and 
sanctification  in  the  subjective  sense  to  denote  the  state  of 
being  regenerated  and  sanctified.  They  are  also  used  in 
the  objective  sense  to  denote  the  agency  or  process  by 
which  we  are  brought  into  this  state,  though  the  objective 
side  of  regeneration  is  expressed  in  our  standards  by  the 
term  "eflTectual  calling."  Let  us  consider  sanctification 
first  subjectively  and  then  objectively. 

I.  Subjectively  Considered. 

Sanctification  is  moral  transformation,  and  is  altogether 
different  from  justification,  which  is  only  a  change  of  legal 
condition.  At  regeneration  the  Christian  begins  to  lead  a 
new  life — a  better,  but  not  a  sinless,  life.  Though  a  new 
nature  has,  so  to  speak,  been  grafted  upon  the  soul,  the  old 
nature  is  not  dead.  The  fruits  of  sin  and  the  fruits  of  the 
Spirit  hang  side  by  side.  Recovery  from  disease  is  not  ef- 
fected in  a  day.  The  patient  is  feeble  long  after  all  danger 
is  past.  So  with  the  soul's  convalescence.  And  it  has  not 
only  been  sick,  but  dead — dead  in  trespasses  and  sins. 
Sanctification  is  a  gradual  change  of  character;  it  is  a 
putting  off  of  the  old  man,  which  is  "corrupt,  according  to 
the  deceitful  lusts,"  and  a  putting  on  of  "the  new  man, 
which  after  God  is  created  in  righteousness  and  true  holi- 
ness." In  regeneration  the  child  of  God  becomes  "  a  new 
creature,"  and  this  becomes  more  apparent  as  sanctification 
goes  on.  He  is  the  subject  of  new  feelings,  new  pleasures, 
new  motives,  new  aims.     "  Old  things   are  passed  away. 


j> 


SUM3IAEY  OF  DOCTRINE.  293 

His  is  not  so  new,  however,  that  he  loses  his  individuality 
or  ceases  to  be  himself.  Sanctification  makes  Christians 
like  Christ,  but  does  not  destroy  the  differences  which  dis- 
tinguish one  Christian  from  another.*  The  agency  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  present  in  sanctification  as  in  regeneration — 
with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  Christian  co-operates 
with  the  Spirit  in  sanctification.  Sanctification  is  a  duty. 
We  are  commanded  to  "  grow  in  grace."  The  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith  alone  is  not  responsible  for  neglect  of 
personal  piety.  The  Christian  is  commanded  to  be  holy ; 
and  that  he  may  attain  holiness  he  is  to  be  actively  en- 
gaged striving  against  sin.  Christian  life  is  a  warfare,  and 
he  is  to  put  on  the  whole  armor  of  God.  It  is  a  race,  and 
he  is  to  lay  aside  every  weight.  The  Christian  is  both  a 
sinner  and  a  saint — a  sinner,  however  great  his  attainments 
in  holiness,  and  a  saint  notwithstanding  his  sins.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  while  he  lives  he  will  not  be  free  from  sin ;  it  is 
just  as  certain  that  he  will  not  fall  away  from  grace.  But 
we  are  assuming  the  truth  of  doctrines  W'hich  merit  a  more 
explicit  statement.  Three  great  questions  claim  attention 
here :  Antinomianism,  Perfectionism  and  the  Perseverance 
of  the  Saints. 

1.  Antinomianism. — Some  have  perverted  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith,  and  have  held  that  as  they 
are  released  from  the  law  as  the  ground  of  justification 
they  are  under  no  obligation  to  keep  it.  This  does  not 
disprove  the  doctrine,  however.  Men  did  the  same  thing 
in  the  days  of  the  apostles.  The  Epistle  of  James  was 
aimed  at  Antinomian  error.  Some  have  said  that  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  belittles  conduct,  which,  as 
Matthew  Arnold  says,  is  three-fourths  of  life.  But  this 
does  not  disprove  the  doctrine.     Paul  had  the  same  objec- 

*  The  fig  tree,  formerly  unfruitful,  now  becomes  fruitful ;  but  the 
rose  never  becomes  the  grape,  the  sanctified  Peter  never  a  James  ot 
a  John. — Van  Oosterzee's  "CI  ristian  Dogmatics,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  658. 
2a* 


294  FBEPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

tion  to  meet :  "  What  shall  we  say  then  ?  Shall  we  con- 
tinue in  sin  that  grace  may  abound  ?  God  forbid."  Some 
charge  upon  those  who  preach  the  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith  a  disregard  of  holiness  as  a  pre-requisite  of  heaven, 
and  speak  boastingly  of  themselves  as  the  special  apostles 
of  personal  piety.  The  charge  is  a  slander  and  the  boast  a 
mistake. 

The  Christian  is  under  the  deepest  obligation  to  obey  the 
law  of  God,  and  is  urged  by  the  strongest  motives  to  strive 
after  holiness. 

1.  This  follows  from  the  nature  of  the  law ;  it  is  the  ex- 
pression of  God's  will — 2i  transcript  of  his  nature.  It  tells 
man  what  he  ought  to  do.  To  break  that  law  is  to  sin,  and 
a  scheme  of  salvation  which  would  license  sin  is  inconceiv- 
able. 

2.  We  are  commanded  to  be  holy,  to  put  off  the  old  man 
and  put  on  the  new,  to  give  diligence,  to  add  to  our  faith, 
virtue,  etc.  Our  Saviour  prays  that  his  disciples  may  be 
sanctified,  and  Paul  prays  for  the  Thessalonians  that  the 
very  God  of  peace  would  sanctify  them  wholly. 

3.  It  is  the  Christian's  nature  to  live  a  life  of  growing 
holiness.  He  has  been  delivered  from  the  power  of  dark- 
ness and  translated  into  the  kingdom  of  God's  dear  Son. 
He  was  dead  in  sin,  he  is  now  dead  to  sin.  "  How  shall  we 
who  are  dead  to  sin  live  any  longer  therein  ?"  That  a  man 
should  find  in  justification  by  faith  an  apology  for  moral 
laxity  would  be  convincing  proof  that  he  had  never  been 
born  again. 

4.  It  is  distinctly  declared  that  without  holiness  no  man 
shall  see  the  Lord. 

5.  The  Christian  is  influenced  by  the  motive  of  gratitude. 
If  we  are  saved  by  the  precious  blood  of  Christ,  a  life  of 
consecration  is  a  very  obvious  duty.  "For  we  thus  judge 
that  if  one  died  fo\  all,  then  were  all  dead,  and  that  he 
died  for  all  that  V'e  who  live  should  not  henceforth  live 


SUiMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  295 

imto  ourselvps,  but  unto  him  who  died  for  us  and  rose 
again." 

6.  And  ht  is  influenced  by  another  motive ;  for  while  we 
are  not  saved  on  account  of  our  works,  w^e  are  judged  by 
our  works.  In  no  sense  are  men  saved  by  works.  They 
enter  heaven  only  on  the  ground  of  the  imputed  righteous- 
ness of  Christ.  But  they  are  rewarded  with  higher  or 
lower  degrees  of  blessedness  according  to  their  conduct  here  : 
"  For  we  must  all  appear  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Christ 
that  every  one  may  receive  the  things  done  in  the  body 
according  to  that  he  hath  done  whether  it  be  good  or  bad." 
1  Cor.  V.  10. 

2.  Perfectionism. — We  ought  to  be  like  Christ ;  this 
is  the  Christian's  aim.  We  are  to  be  like  Christ ;  this  is 
the  Christian's  hope.  But  perfection  is  not  attainable  in 
this  life  :  "  No  mere  man,  since  the  fall,  is  able  in  this  life 
perfectly  to  keep  the  commandments  of  God ;  but  doth 
daily  break  them  in  thought,  word  and  deed." 

The  proof  of  this  is  found — 

1.  In  the  experience  of  Paul.  In  the  seventh  chapter  of 
Romans  he  says :  "  I  delight  in  the  law  of  God,  after  the 
inward  man  ;  but  I  see  another  law  in  my  members  warring 
against  the  law  of  my  mind,  and  bringing  me  into  captivity 
to  the  law  of  sin,  which  is  in  my  members."  In  the  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians  he  says  :  "  Not  as  though  I  had  already 
attained,  either  were  already  perfect ;  but  I  follow  after,  if 
that  I  may  apprehend  that  for  which  I  also  am  apprehend- 
ed of  Christ  Jesus."  Paul's  humility  makes  the  claim  of 
])erfection  on  the  part  of  a  Christian  seem  like  presumption. 

2.  We  read :  "  If  we  say  we  have  no  sin,  we  deceive 
ourselves,  and  the  truth  is  not  in  us."  1  John  i.  8. 

3.  Our  Lord  gave  his  disciples  a  model  for  prayer,  and  it 
contains  the  petition,  "  Forgive  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive 
our  debtors."  The  perfect  Christian,  however,  cannot  offer 
that  prayer. 


296  PEEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

4.  Christian  experience  is  opposed  to  the  doctrine.  Does 
any  Christian  suppose  that  he  is  as  like  Christ  as  he  will 
be?  Is  there  a  man  living  who  for  a  moment  supposes 
that  all  his  thoughts,  words  and  actions  conform  to  the  law 
of  God  ?  The  truth  is  that  if  by  sin  is  meant  "  any  want 
of  conformity  unto  or  transgression  of  the  law  of  God,"  and 
if  by  the  law  of  God  is  understood  the  law  given  to  Adam, 
there  is  not  a  perfectionist  in  the  world.  Perfectionist 
theories  are  based  on  false  views  of  sin  or  false  views  of  the 
law.  Let  it  be  shown  that  the  law  by  which  we  are  bound 
is  the  moral  law  as  it  was  given  to  Adam  without  abate- 
ment or  change,  let  it  be  shown  that  sin  is  any  want  of  con- 
formity unto  as  well  as  transgression  of  this  law,  and  Per- 
fectionism becomes  transparently  absurd. 

3.  Perseverance  of  the  Saints. — The  angels  rejoice 
over  the  sinner's  repentance.  They  are  not  disappointed. 
The  sinner  who  once  accepts  Christ  in  a  living  faith  never 
forsakes  him.  Spiritual  life  may  languish,  but  it  never 
dies. 

On  this  point  Calvinists  and  Arminians  hold  opposite 
opinions.  The  Calvinistic  position  is  well  stated  in  our 
Confession  of  Faith  :  "  They  whom  God  hath  accepted  in 
his  Beloved,  effectually  called  and  sanctified  by  his  Spirit, 
can  neither  totally  nor  finally  fall  away  from  the  state  of 
grace,  but  shall  certainly  persevere  therein  to  the  end  and 
be  eternally  saved."     This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible. 

1.  It  follows  from  the  statements  which  teach  a  present 
salvation.  "  He  that  believeth  hath  eternal  life."  "  We 
have  passed  from  death  unto  life."  "  There  is  now  no  con- 
demnation." These  statements  could  not  be  made  regard- 
ing Christians  if  their  ultimate  salvation  were  uncertain. 

2.  AYe  read  that  whom  he  "calls  he  justifies,  and  whom 
he  justifies  he  glorifies."  Every  Christian  is  therefore  sure 
of  glory.  < 

5.  The  Bible  says  that  lie  who  believes  shall  be  saved. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  297 

It  aIso  says  :  "  Without  holiness  no  man  shall  see  the  Lord." 
This  doctrine  harmonizes  these  passages,  as  it  teaches  that 
every  believer  will  persevere  in  holiness. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  Perseverance  is  necessary  to  account 
for  the  strong  language  of  confidence  employed  by  the  apos- 
tle Paul :  "  Henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness ;"  "I  know  whom  I  have  believed,"  etc. ;  "  I 
am  persuaded  that  nothing  shall  separate  me  from  the  love 
of  God  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  my  Lord."  Paul  was  not 
self-righteous  or  self-confident.  His  assurance  was  based  on 
the  evidence  that  God  had  chosen  him  to  obtain  salvation. 

5.  It  follows  of  necessity  from  the  doctrine  of  election. 
God  has  chosen  some  to  everlasting  life.  He  has  chosen 
them  to  salvation  through  faith.  Faith  is  the  fruit  of  re- 
generation, and  regeneration  is  the  proof  of  election.  A 
living  faith  is  a  guarantee  of  election.  This  is  necessarily 
so,  for  all  who  believe  are  saved  ;  but  none  are  saved  who 
are  not  elected.  Therefore  all  who  believe  are  elected. 
Hence  those  who  are  regenerated  never  die.  "  The  gifts 
and  calling  of  God  are  without  repentance."  They  are  not 
revoked. 

6.  The  Scriptures  aflirm  the  doctrine  :  "  I  will  give  unto 
them  eternal  life,  and  they  shall  never  perish,  neither  shall 
any  man  pluck  them  out  of  my  hand."  John  x.  28.  "  He 
who  hath  begun  a  good  work  in  you  will  perform  it  until 
the  day  of  Jesus  Christ."  Phil.  i.  6. 

The  doctrine  of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints  is  very 
precious  and  very  comforting  to  the  child  of  God,  but  it 
does  not  encourage  indolence  or  pride.  Along  with  this 
doctrine  comes  the  exhortation  to  "give  diligence  to  make 
your  calling  and  election  sure,"  and  the  caution,  "  Let  him 
that  thinketh  he  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  fall."  Nor  is  it 
by  any  inherent  strength  that  he  resists  temptation  and 
perseveres  in  a  holy  life.  He  is  kept  b^?  the  power  of 
God  through  fait!  unto  salvation. 


298  PREPARING    TO   TEACH. 

11.  Objectively  Considered. 

Our  catecliism  saj^s  that  sanctification  is  a  work  of  God's 
free  grace,  whereby  we  are  renewed  in  the  whole  man  after 
the  image  of  God,  and  are  enabled  more  and  more  to  die 
unto  sin  and  to  live  unto  righteousness. 

1.  It  is  effected  by  divine  agency.  This  is  the  uniform 
testimony  of  Scripture.  The  Father  sanctifies,  the  Son 
sanctifies,  the  Spirit  sanctifies.  1  Thess.  v.  23 ;  Heb.  xiii. 
20,  21 ;  Tit.  ii.  14 ;  Eph.  v.  25.  But  it  is  especially  attributed 
to  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity.  In  the  work  of  redemp- 
tion each  person  of  the  Trinity  is  especially  concerned. 
The  Father  loved  us,  and  sent  his  Son ;  the  Son  loved  us, 
and  died  to  expiate  our  guilt ;  the  Spirit  loved  us,  and 
made  his  abode  in  us,  taking  of  the  things  that  are  Christ's 
and  showing  them  to  us.  To  his  gracious  influence  the 
Christian  owes  not  only  the  new  birth,  but  growth  in  grace. 
Our  growth  in  grace  is  a  very  different  thing  from  moral 
reformation.  It  is  not  by  culture,  development  or  building 
up  of  manhood  that  souls  grow  in  grace.  The  preaching 
which  fails  to  recognize  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
not  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  however  fully  and  eloquently 
it  may  urge  upon  men  a  life  and  conversation  becoming  the 
gospel. 

2.  It  is  a  work. 

It  is  to  the  continued  presence  of  God's  Spirit  that 
Christians  are  indebted  for  their  advances  in  holiness.  We 
are  in  Christ,  and  being  in  him  derive  spiritual  sustenance : 
"  As  the  branch  cannot  bear  fruit  of  itself,  except  it  abide 
in  the  vine,  no  more  can  ye  except  ye  abide  in  me."  And 
being  united  to  Christ  the  Spirit  abides  with  us,  and  our 
bodies  are  made  the  temples  of  the  living  God.  The  Holy 
Ghost  does  not  remove  all  trace  of  sin  when  he  regenerates 
us,  as  Roman  Catholics  teach.  Hence  regeneration  is  only 
the  beginning  of  a  process  which  end*  in  complete  sanctifica- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE,  299 

tion.  Nor  does  he  implant  a  germ  of  holiness  and  leave  it  to 
fight  its  way  against  opposing  influences.  It  is  by  no  in- 
herent vitality  that  the  soul  perseveres  in  a  holy  life.  \(q 
need  the  sanctifying  and  reviving  influences  of  the  Spirit  of 
God.  In  times  of  spiritual  declension  we  pray,  "  O  Lord, 
revive  thy  work."  At  all  times  we  pray,  "Lord,  increase 
our  faith." 

3.  The  Spirit  works  through  raeaws.  Our  Saviour  prayed, 
"Sanctify  them  through  thy  truth:  thy  word  is  truth." 
Hence  sanctificatiou  is  a  duty,  and  we  are  responsible  for 
the  use  we  make  of  the  means  of  grace.  The  outward  and 
ordinary  means  are  the  word,  sacraments  and  prayer. 


LESSOJT  XL 

THE  MEANS  OF  GRACE. 

When  our  Lord  had  raised  the  maiden  from  the  dead, 
"he  commanded  that  somethins;  be  given  her  to  eat."  This 
illustrates  the  diflerence  between  regeneration  and  sanctifi- 
catiou. Spiritual  food  will  not  impart  life  to  a  dead  soul, 
though  it  will  nourish  and  strengthen  one  already  quick- 
ened. New  life  is  due  to  the  direct  exercise  of  divine  efli- 
ciency,  but  growth  in  grace  results  from  spiritual  nourish- 
ment. In  regeneration  the  Spirit  works  immediately;  in 
sanctificatiou  he  works  through  means.  Hence  the  apostle 
says :  "  Desire  the  sincere  milk  of  the  word,  that  ye  may 
grow  thereby."  Holiness  is  a  duty.  Without  it  no  man 
shall  see  the  Lord.  Hence,  in  addition  to  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ  and  repentance  unto  life,  God  requireth  of  us  a  "  dil- 
igent use  of  all  the  outward  means  whereby  Christ  communi- 
cateth  to  us  the  benefits  of  redemption."  These  outward 
means  are  God's  ordinances,  especially  the  word,  sacraments 
and  prayer. 


300  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

I.  The  Word. 
By  the  word  is  meant  the  Bible.  It  is  the  rule  of  duty. 
All  questions,  both  of  creed  and  conduct,  are  to  be  deter- 
mined by  it.  To  know  what  is  true  we  are  not  to  go  to 
church  councils,  creeds  or  catechisms,  but  to  the  Bible.  To 
know  what  is  right  we  are  not  to  consult  private  opinion  or 
public  sentiment,  but  the  Bible.  It  is  given  by  inspiration 
of  God,  and  is  therefore  "  profitable  for  doctrine,  for  re- 
proof, for  correction,  for  instruction  in  righteousness."  Do 
we  desire  to  learn  the  way  of  God  more  perfectly  ?  Then 
the  Holy  Scriptures  are  able  to  make  us  wise  unto  salva- 
tion. Are  we  in  heaviness  through  manifold  temptations? 
Then  let  us  consider  Him  who  endured  such  contradiction 
of  sinners  against  himself  Are  we  faint-hearted  ?  Let  us 
turn  to  the  promises.  Are  we  growing  cold  and  formal  in 
the  service  of  Christ?  Then  the  Epistles  of  Peter  should 
stir  us  up  by  putting  us  in  remembrance.  Have  we  to  do 
battle  against  the  enemy  of  souls  ?  Then  let  us  wield  the 
sword  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of  God.  The  Bible 
reflects  God's  glory ;  and  beholding  in  it  as  in  a  glass  the 
glory  of  God,  we  are  changed  into  the  same  image  from 
glory  to  glory,  even  as  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord.  The 
word  of  God  is  quick  and  powerful  and  sharper  than  any 
two-edged  sword,  piercing  even  to  the  dividing  asunder  of 
soul  and  spirit,  and  of  the  joints  and  marrow,  and  is  a  dis- 
cerner  of  the  thoughts  and  intents  of  the  heart.  How  is 
the  sanctifying  influence  of  the  word  accounted  for  ?  There 
are  three  answers  to  this  question. 

1.  Seme  say  that  the  influence  which  the  Bible  exerts  is 
only  the  natural  result  of  the  presentation  of  moral  truth  to 
the  mind. 

2.  Lutherans  say  that  there  is  an  inherent  virtue  in  the 
word  which,  if  not  resisted,  produces  blessed  results  in  those 
to  whom  it  is  presented.     Its  influence  is  not  due  to  the  nat- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  301 

ural  force  of  truth,  but  to  the  Spirit  of  God  working  in  and 
with  it. 

3.  The  Reformed  doctrine  is  different  from  both  the  fore- 
going views.  The  first  view  is  not  correct,  inasmuch  as  the 
presentation  of  the  truth  to  the  mind  does  not  enable  a  man 
to  understand  the  truth,  nor  does  it  open  his  heart  to  the 
reception  of  it.  This  is  the  work  of  the  Spirit.  The 
second  view  is  not  correct,  because  it  denies  the  personal 
agency  of  the  Spirit  as  separate  and  distinct  from  the  word. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Bible  is  that  the  word  sanctifies  by  be- 
ing made  efficacious  through  the  Spirit.  The  word  may  be 
presented  without  the  attending  influence  of  the  Spirit,  for 
it  acts  by  no  inherent  power,  and  the  Spirit  works  when  and 
where  he  pleases.  The  word  must  be  attended  by  the  effi- 
cacious influence  of  the  Spirit,  or  it  is  preached  in  vain. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  praying  for  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  order  that  we  may  study  the  Scriptures  with 
profit.  Hence,  too,  the  need  of  praying  that  God  would 
give  his  word  success,  and  that  his  Spirit  would  lead  us  into 

all  truth. 

II.  Sacraments. 

Our  Lord  has  enjoined  upon  his  followers  the  observance 
of  two  ordinances  through  which,  as  well  as  through  the 
word,  he  is  pleased  to  communicate  his  grace.  These  ordi- 
nances are  the  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. "  A  sacrament  is  a  holy  ordinance  instituted  by 
Christ,  wherein,  by  sensible  signs,  Christ  and  the  benefits  of 
the  new  covenant  are  represented,  sealed  and  applied  to  be- 
lievers."* "The  grace  which  is  exhibited  in  or  by  the 
sacraments  rightly  used  is  not  conferred  by  any  power  in 
them,  neither  doth  the  efficacy  of  a  sacrament  depend  upon 
the  piety  or  intention  of  him  that  doth  administer  it,  but 
upon  the  work  of  the  Spirit  and  the  word  of  institution, 
which  contains,  together  with  the  precept  authorizing  tlie 

*  Shorter  Catechism,  Q.  92. 
26 


302  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

use  thereof,  a  promise  of  benefit  to  worthy  receivers."* 
These  statements  express  the  idea  of  the  sacraments  enter- 
tained by  the  Reformed  Churches.     They  are  opposed — 

1.  To  the  Koman  Catholic  doctrine.  The  Church  of 
Rome  says  that  the  sacraments  contain  the  grace  they  sig- 
nify, and  convey  it  ex  opere  operato.  As  food  has  power  to 
support  life,  so  baptism  regenerates  and  the  eucharist  af- 
fords spiritual  nourishment  without  regard  to  the  faith  or 
want  of  faith  of  those  receiving  the  sacraments. 

2.  To  the  Lutheran  view.  Lutherans  deny  the  ex  opere 
operato  doctrine  as  taught  by  Romanists.  They  hold  that 
faith  is  necessary  to  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments,  but  they 
hold  that  when  received  in  faith  the  sacraments  convey 
grace  by  an  mhereut  virtue,  just  as  they  maintain  that  the 
word  sanctifies  by  an  inherent  virtue.  The  doctrine  of  our 
Church  is  that  both  word  and  sacraments  are  made  effica- 
cious by  the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  and  not  by  any  inherent 
power  in  themselves. 

3.  To  the  Zwinglian  view.  According  to  this  view,  the 
sacraments  cannot  be  properly  called  means  of  grace.  They 
are  only  symbolicaJ  modes  of  stating  Scripture  truth.  The 
doctrine  of  our  standards  is  that  the  sacraments  not  only 
represent,  but  that  they  seal  and  exhibit  or  apply  to  believers, 
the  benefits  of  Christ's  redemption. 

In  studying  this  subject  we  are  to  guard  against  two  ex- 
tremes. First,  we  are  to  be  careful  not  to  undervalue  the 
sacraments  or  ignore  the  fact  that  they  are  channels  of 
grace ;  secondly,  we  are  to  be  careful  not  to  regard  them  as 
channels  of  every  grace,  for  they  are  sanctifying,  but  not 
regenerating,  ordinances.f  Passing  from  these  remarks  on 
the  sacraments  in  general,  let  us  consider  each  of  these  or- 
dinances separately. 

*  Confession  of  Faitl\  jap.  xxvii.,  ^  3. 

f  "The  substance  of  this  matter  maybe  embodied  in  these  two  po- 
sitions: 1.  That  the  Holy  Spirit  ordinarily  employs  the  sacraments, 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  3C3 

1.  Baptism. — And  here  we  are  met  by  three  inquiries: 
1.  The  idea  of  baptism ;  2.  The  subjects  of  baptism  ;  3. 
The  mode  of  baptism. 

1.  The  idea  of  baptism.  A  Hindoo,  let  us  suppose,  ap- 
plies to  the  missionary  for  baptism.  Shall  the  missioimry 
take  the  ground  that  baptism  is  a  regenerating  ordinance, 
and  baptize  him  without  making  any  inquiry  respecting  his 
state  of  mind  ?  Or  shall  he  take  the  ground  that  baptism 
is  the  ordinance  in  which  a  profession  of  faith  in  Christ  is 
made,  and  satisfy  himself  that  the  person  applying  for  bap- 
tism is  a  Christian  ?  If  he  follows  New  Testament  prece- 
dent, he  will  adopt  the  latter  course.  The  case  supposed  is 
analogous  to  the  instances  of  baptism  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament.  In  this,  and  in  all  other  cases  of  adult  bap- 
tism, it  is  clear,  therefore,  that  baptism  presupposes  regen- 
eration, and  cannot  be  a  regenerating  agent.  If  baptism 
ever  regenerates,  it  must  be  in  the  case  of  infants.  But  we 
concede  freely  to  the  Baptist  denomination  that  the  New  Tes- 
tament does  not  give  a  single  unmistakable  instance  of  in- 
fant baptism.  Baptismal  regeneration  is  therefore  discounte- 
nanced by  every  instance  of  baptism  recorded  in  the  Bible. 
Its  only  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  doctrine  of  Scripture 

when  received  by  persons  duly  qualified  and  rightly  prepared,  as 
means  or  instruments  of  conveying  to  them  clearer  views  and  more 
lively  and  impressive  conceptions  of  what  he  has  done  and  revealed 
in  his  word  with  respect  to  the  provisions  and  arrangements  of  the 
covenant  of  grace  and  their  special  application  to  men  individually. 
And,  2.  That  the  Holy  Spirit,  acting  in  accordance  with  the  princi- 
ples and  tendencies  of  our  constitution,  ordinarily  employs  the  sac- 
raments as  means  or  instruments  of  increasing  and  strengthening 
man's  faith  with  reference  to  all  its  appropriate  objects,  and  thereby 
of  imparting  to  them  in  greater  abundance,  all  the  spiritual  blessings 
which  are  connected  with  the  lively  and  vigorous  exercise  of  faith— 
that  is,  all  those  subordinate  blessings,  as  in  a  certain  sense  they  may 
be  called,  which  accompany  and  flow  from  justification  and  regenera- 
tion."— Cunning  am's  "Keformers  and  Theology  of  the  Ee formation," 
p.  287. 


304  PBEPABINO   TO   TEACH.  ■ 

rests  on  a  few  isolated  texts  of  Scripture,  and  these  it  can 
be  shown  will  not  bear  the  interpretation  which  the  advo- 
cates of  Sacraraentarianism  put  upon  them. 

One  of  these  passages  is  John  iii.  5 :  "  Except  a  man  be 
born  of  water  and  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God." 

But  it  is  not  clear  that  "  born  of  water "  refers  to  bap- 
tism ;  and  if  it  does,  it  is  not  clear  that "  kingdom  of  God" 
means  heaven.  Another  text  is  found  in  Titus  iii.  5 : 
"  Not  by  works  of  righteousness  which  we  have  done,  but 
according  to  his  mercy  he  saved  us,  by  the  washing  of  re- 
generation and  renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  Here  again 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  no  reference  to  baptism 
is  intended.  The  probable  meaning  is :  "  We  are  saved  by 
that  washing  which  is  regeneration,  namely,  the  renewing 
of  the  Holy  Ghost."* 

Baptism,  being  administered  to  adults  on  profession  of 
faith,  is  to  them  a  sign  and  seal  of  regeneration,  not  as 
effecting  it,  but  as  witnessing  that  it  has  been  already  effect- 
ed. Regeneration  and  baptism  are  in  this  way  closely  re- 
lated ideas,  and  this  will  explain  such  passages  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  "  Arise  and  be  baptized  and  wash  away  thy  sins ;" 
"  Repent  and  be  baptized,  every  one  of  you,  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ  for  the  remission  of  sins." 

2.  The  subjects  of  baptism.  The  heathen  just  referred  to 
•would  be  treated  in  the  same  way  by  a  Presbyterian  or  a 
Baptist  missionary.  Neither  would  baptize  him  except  on 
a  credible  profession  of  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  And 
as  the  cases  of  adult  baptism  in  the  New  Testament  are 
analogous  to  the  one  supposed,  they  need  not  be  the  occa- 
sion of  any  difference  of  opinion  (save  as  to  the  mode  of 
baptism)  between  Presbyterians  and  Baptists.  It  is  agreed 
that  the  converts  to  Christianity  from  Judaism  or  heathen- 
ism are  to  be  baptized  on  profession  of  faith.  To  this  ex- 
*  Hodge,  "  Systematic  Theology,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  596. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  305 

tent  Presbyterians  are  firm  advocates  of  "believers'  bap- 
tism." But  suppose  that  the  heathen  above  referred  to  had 
children?  What  then?  Should  the  missionary  baptize 
them  also  ?  If  he  were  a  Presbyterian,  he  would ;  if  he 
were  a  Baptist,  he  would  not.  And  here  we  reach  the  real 
difference  between  our  Baptist  brethren  and  ourselves.  The 
question  between  us  is  simply  whether  the  children  of  be- 
lievers are  entitled  to  baptism.  In  answering  this  question 
two  concessions  are  to  be  freely  made.  1.  That  the  New 
Testament  does  not  contain  one  clear  case  of  infant  bap- 
tism. 2.  That  the  doctrine  of  infant  baptism  does  not  rest 
on  a  positive  command  of  Christ,  but  is  arrived  at  inferen- 
tially.  Neither  of  these  concessions  affects  the  case.  It  is 
not  strange  that  the  New  Testament  makes  no  specific  men- 
tion of  infant  baptism.  Let  us  illustrate:  A  Presbyterian 
missionary  goes  to  a  heathen  land  to  preach  the  gospel. 
As  the  result  of  his  preaching  a  heathen  is  converted.  He 
is  baptized,  and  the  fact  is  reported.  But  in  reporting  the 
baptism  the  minister  only  wishes  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
this  heathen  has  made  a  profession  of  religion,  that  being 
the  important  thing.  If  the  convert  has  children,  they  are 
likewise  baptized,  and  he  may  or  may  not  refer  to  it.  If  he 
does  refer  to  it,  he  will  refer  to  it  as  a  subordinate  fact,  and 
say  that  the  children  were  baptized  or  the  household  was 
baptized.  Now,  the  cases  of  baptism  in  the  New  Testament 
were  cases  like  the  one  supposed.  And  while  it  is  not 
strange  that  there  is  no  typical  case  of  infant  baptism,  like 
that  of  Cornelius,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  where  the 
sacred  writers  say  that  "he  and  all  his"  were  baptized 
they  are  recording  as  a  subordinate  fact  the  baptism  of  the 
convert's  children  as  well  as  of  the  convert  himself  Nor  is  it 
a  valid  argument  against  infant  baptism  that  our  Lord  does 
not  command  children  to  be  baptized.  He  did  not  enjoin 
the  observance  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  the  Christian 
Sabbath. 

26* 


306  PBEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

We  have  not  space  enough  to  enter  into  an  argument  in 
defence  of  infant  baptism.  These,  however,  are  the  princi- 
ples which  govern  us  in  the  matter. 

(a)  The  Church  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Church  of 
the  New^  are  one  and  the  same  Church. 

(6)  Children  of  believers  were  members  of  the  church 
under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation.  They  are  entitled 
to  membership,  therefore,  in  the  Christian  church,  unless  it 
can  be  shown  that  this  right  no  longer  exists.  The  dif- 
ference between  us  and  the  Baptists  is  a  question  con- 
cerning the  burden  of  proof.  We  affirm  the  doctrine  of 
infant  church  membership  because  it  cannot  be  shown  that 
it  is  contrary  to  New  Testament  teaching.  They  deny  the 
doctrine  of  infant  church  membership  because  it  cannot  be 
proved  by  direct  testimony  of  the  New  Testament. 

(c)  If  we  are  right  in  claiming  for  children  under  the 
New  Testament  the  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  un- 
der the  Old  until  it  is  proved  that  those  privileges  have 
been  revoked,  we  are  right  in  claiming  that  they  are  entitled 
to  baptism ;  for  if  they  are  entitled  to  membership,  they 
cannot  reasonably  be  denied  that  which  is  the  sign  of  mem- 
bership. The  view  we  have  taken  furnishes  a  natural  ex- 
planation of  those  passages  which  refer  to  the  baptism  of 
Lydia  and  her  household,  of  the  household  of  Stephanas,  of 
the  jailer  and  all  his.  It  is  possible  that  there  were  no  in- 
fants in  these  households,  but  the  probabilities  are  the  other 
way;  and  the  references  are  just  such  as  a  missionary  at  the 
present  day  would  make  if  he  were  reporting  the  conversion 
of  a  heathen  and  the  subsequent  baptism  of  himself  and 
his  family. 

3.  The  mode  of  baptism.  Baptism  is  a  washing  with 
water  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost. 
How  much  water  is  used  and  how  it  is  applied  are  matters 
of  small  moment      Baptism  may  be  performed  by  immer- 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  307 

sion,  affusion  or  sprinkliog.  Baptists  claim  that  baptism 
means  immersion,  and  that  sprinkling  is  not  baptism.  For 
this  position,  however,  they  have  no  authority. 

(a)  The  use  of  the  words  "  bapto  "  and  "  baptizo  "  does 
not  warrant  it.  These  words  are  used  where  Nebuchadnez- 
zar is  said  to  have  been  "  wet  with  the  dew  of  heaven," 
where  the  washing  of  the  hands,  of  pots  and  cups  and 
tables  (couches)  is  spoken  of,  and  in  Mark  vii.  4,  where 
we  read  :  "  And  when  they  come  from  market,  except  they 
wash,  they  eat  not." 

{b)  The  use  of  the  Greek  prepositions  translated  "  in," 
"into,"  "out  of,"  does  not  sustain  the  Baptist  position. 
Philip  and  the  eunuch  went  down,  both  of  them,  "  into  "  the 
water.  But  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  more  than  that 
they  went  down  to  the  stream  and  stood  beside  it.  If  it 
necessarily  conveys  the  idea  of  immersion,  we  must  hold 
that  Philip  was  immersed  too,  for  they  both  went  down 
"  into  "  the  water. 

(c)  The  cases  of  baptism  recorded  in  the  New  Testament 
do  not  sustain  the  Baptist  position.  Three  thousand  con- 
verts were  baptized  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  Considering 
the  short  time  in  which  this  was  done,  and  the  scarcity  of 
water  in  Jerusalem,  it  is  hardly  possible  that  they  were 
immersed.  The  account  of  the  baptism  of  Cornelius  sug- 
gests the  idea  that  water  was  brought  for  the  purpose. 
"Can  any  man  forbid  water?"  The  Philippian  jailer  was 
baptized  at  midnight  and  in  prison.  It  is  highly  improb- 
able that  he  was  immersed. 

(rf)  The  Baptist  position  is  not  supported  by  the  remain- 
ing references  to  baptism  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Isra- 
elites were  baptized  in  the  Ked  Sea,  but  they  were  not  im- 
mersed. We  receive  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but 
we  are  not  immersed  in  the  Spirit.  He  is  poured  out  upon 
us. 

2.  The  Lord's  Supper. — There  are  four  leading  views 


308  FBEFABI^'G   TO   TEACH. 

in  respect   to  this   sacrament,   the    Roman  Catholic,   the 
Lutheran,  the  Zwinglian  and  the  Reformed. 

1.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  teaches  that  by  the  act 
of  the  officiating  priest  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  in 
the  eucharist — or,  as  they  call  it,  the  mass — are  changed  into 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation.  The  scriptural  arguments  in  support  of  this 
are  John  vi.  53 :  "  Then  said  Jesus  unto  them,  Verily,  verily 
I  say  unto  you,  Except  ye  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  man, 
and  drink  his  blood,  ye  have  no  life  in  you ;"  and  1  Cor.  xi. 
24 :  "  This  is  my  body."*  The  mass  is  both  a  sacrament  and 
a  sacrifice.  As  a  sacrament  it  imparts  spiritual  nourish- 
ment ex  opere  operato.  But  as  a  sacrifice  it  is  a  satisfaction 
for  sin.  Romanism  is  a  huge,  though  consistent  (and  this 
is  more  than  can  be  said  of  high  Anglicanism),  perversion 
of  Bible  truth.  It  makes  the  minister  a  priest,  the  memo- 
rial meal  a  sacrifice ;  and  instead  of  teaching  that  Christ  was 
once  (once  for  all)  offered  to  bear  the  sins  of  many,  it  makes 
the  satisfaction  for  sin  depend  on  the  repetition  of  that 
sacrifice  in  the  mass. 

2.  The  Lutherans  deny  that  the  substance  of  the  ele- 
ments is  changed,  but  they  believe  in  the  corporeal  pres- 
ence of  Christ  i?i,  under  and  with  the  elements.  This  is 
consubstantiation.  They  hold  that  faith  on  the  part  of  the 
communicant  is  necessary  in  order  that  grace  may  be  re- 
ceived, but  they  hold,  likewise,  that,  as  in  the  case  of  bap- 
tism, the  eucharist  has  an  inherent  virtue. 

3.  The  Zwinglian  view  regards  the  Lord's  Supper  sim- 
ply as  ^yrnbolical,  and  as  a  means  of  grace  only  as  it  is 
another  mode  of  presenting  truth  to  the  mind. 

4.  The  Reformed  doctrine  is  opposed  to  all  the  forego- 
mg.  It  is  opposed  to  the  Zwinglian  view,  inasmuch  as  it 
teaches  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a  channel  of  gra^ce.  It  is 
opposed  to  the  Lutheran,  inasmuch  as  it  teaches  that  this 

.•0* 

*  See  the  commentaries  on  these  verses. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  309 

grace  is  conveyed  not  by  any  inherent  virtue  in  the  ordi- 
nance, but  only  as  the  Holy  Ghost  uses  it  for  our  sanctifi- 
cation ;  and  of  course  it  is  still  more  opposed  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  view. 

Our  Shorter  Catechism  says:  "The  Lord's  Supper  is  a 
sacrament,  wherein,  by  giving  and  receiving  bread  and 
wine  according  to  Christ's  appointment,  his  death  is  showed 
forth,  and  the  worthy  receivers  are,  not  after  a  corporal  and 
carnal  manner,  but  by  faith,  made  partakers  of  his  body 
and  blood,  with  all  his  benefits  to  their  spiritual  nourish- 
ment and  growth  in  grace,"  "^ 

Looking  at  this  ordinance  as  it  is  expounded  in  the  sym- 
bols of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  especially  of  our  own,  we 
may  distinguish  four  leading  ideas. 

(a)  The  memorial  idea.  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of 
me."  The  love  which  brought  salvation  and  the  way  by 
which  salvation  came  are  to  be  kept  fresh  in  our  minds  by 
the  periodic  observance  of  the  ordinance  which  commemo- 
rates Christ's  death. 

(6)  The  symbolical  idea.  As  baptism  teaches  by  sym- 
bol the  doctrine  of  depravity  and  the  necessity  of  regener- 
ation, so  the  impressive  ordinance  of  the  Supper  speaks  to 
us  of  guilt  and  of  the  atonement.  A  Socinian  theology  has 
no  adequate  explanation  of  the  eucharist. 

(c)  The  social  idea.  This  service  is  a  memorial  meal. 
It  is  the  "  Lord's  table "  which  is  spread,  the  "  Lord's 
Supper  "  of  which  we  partake.  It  is  a  communion  of  Chris- 
tians with  their  Lord  and  with  one  another.  The  followers 
of  Christ  are  brethren,  and  he  is  the  Elder  Brother  of  them 
all. 

{d)  The  sacramental  idea.  There  is  no  word  which  ex- 
actly expresses  the  thought  which  we  wish  to  express  under 
this  head.  High  Churchmen  speak  of  the  sacramental  prin- 
ciple, but  by  it  they  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  sign 

*  Shorter  Catechism,  Q.  96. 


310  PREPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

and  the  thing  signified  always  accompany  each  other.     We 
use    the   word   sacramental    in   this  connection  because  it 
serves  better  than  any  other  to  express  the  thought  that 
this  ordinance,  besides  being  a  memorial  service  and  sym- 
bolical of  precious  truth,  is  really  a  means  of  grace  to  those 
who  receive  it  in  faith,  that  in  a  real,  though  not  in  a  bod- 
ily sense,  Christ  is  present,  and  that  in  a  spiritual,  though 
not  in  a  corporal  manner,  believers  do  feed  upon  him  to 
their  spiritual  nourishment  and  growth  in  grace.     It  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is  only  a  memo- 
rial service  or  that  it  is   merely  a  symbolical  ordinance. 
The  language  used  respecting  it  in  the  New  Testament  for- 
bids our  taking  such  a  low  view  of  it.     Rejecting  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  Lutheran  interpretations  put  upon  the 
words  of  our  Lord,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  he  did  say, 
"  This  is  my  body,"  "  This  cup  is  the  new  testament  in  my 
blood."     Remember,  too,  that  Paul  uses  this  strong  lan- 
guage in  regard  to  the  eucharist :  "  Wherefore  whosoever 
shall  eat  this  bread  and  drink  this  cup  of  the  Lord  un- 
worthily shall   be  guilty  of  the  body    and    blood    of  the 
Lord.     But  let  him  examine  himself,  and  so  let  him  eat  of 
that  bread  and  drink  of  that  cup.     For  he  that  eateth  and 
drinketh  unworthily,  eateth  and  drinketh  damnation  (judg- 
ment) to  himself,  not  discerning  the  Lord's  body."  1  Cor. 
xi.  27-29.     We  read  also,  1  Cor.  x.  16,  "  The  cup  of  bless- 
ing which  we  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood  of 
Christ?     The  bread  which  he  brake,  is  it  not  the  commu- 
nion of  the  body  of  Christ  ?"  *     In  this  ordinance  we  not 
only  remember  Christ — we  receive  him.f 

*  For  remarks  on  these  passages,  see  Bannerman,  "  The  Cliurch  of 
Christ,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  18S. 

f  "  Christ  is  really  present  to  his  people  in  this  sacrament,  not 
bodily,  but  in  spirit,  not  in  the  sense  of  local  nearness,  but  of  effica- 
cious operation.  They  receive  him  not  with  the  mouth,  but  by 
faith  ;  they  receive  his  flesh  and  blood,  not  a?;  flesh,  not  as  material 
particles,  not  as  human  life,  not  the  supernatural  influence  of  hia 


SUMiMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  311 

The  Lord's  table  is  spread  for  the  Lord's  people.  None 
but  Christians  should  come  to  it,  and  none  who  are  Christ's 
should  be  kept  from  it.  Hence,  in  admitting  persons  to 
sealing  ordinances,  it  is  not  right  to  require  them  to  sub- 
scribe to  an  elaborate  creed,  or  to  exact  from  them  more 
tlian  a  credible  profession  of  faith.*  Men  cannot  read  the 
lieart,  and  Christ  does  not  recognize  a  vicarious  conscience. 

Our  Directory  for  Worship  says  :f  "  Children  born  within 
the  pale  of  the  visible  Church,  and  dedicated  to  God  in 
baptism,  are  under  the  inspection  and  government  of  the 
Church,  and  are  to  be  taught  to  read  and  repeat  the  cate- 
chism, the  apostles'  creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They 
are  to  be  taught  to  pray,  to  abhor  sin,  to  fear  God  and  to 
obey  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  And  when  they  come  to  years 
of  discretion,  if  they  be  free  from  scandal,  appear  sober  and 
steady  and  have  knowledge  to  discern  the  Lord's  body,  they 
ought  to  be  informed  it  is  their  duty  and  their  privilege  to 
come  to  the  Lord's  Supper." 

glorified  body  in  heaven,  but  his  body  as  broken  and  his  blood  as 
shed.     Tlie  union  thus  signified  and  effected  is  not  a  corporeal  union, 
not  a  mixture  of  substances,  but  a  spiritual  and  mvstical  union  due 
to  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit.     Tiie  eflBcacy  of  this  sacrament?  I 
as  a  means  of  grace  is  not  in  the  sign,  nor  in  the  service,  rior  in  the,; 
minister,  nor  in  the  word,  but  in  the  attending  influence  of  the  Holy  ( 
Ghost." — Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  vol.  iii.,  p.  650. 

*  "The  principle  (of  communion),  as  it  is  notorious  that  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  has  always  held  it,  does  not  constitute  the  pastor,  eld- 
ers or  congregation  judges  of  the  actual  conversion  of  the  applicant, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  lays  much  responsibility  on  the  applicant  him- 
self. The  minister  and  kirk-session  must  be  satisfied  as  to  his  com- 
petent knowledge,  credible  profession  and  consistent  walk.  They 
must  determine  negatively  that  there  is  no  reason  for  pronouncing 
him  not  to  be  a  Christian,  but  they  do  not  undertake  the  responsibil- 
ity of  positively  judging  of  his  conversion." — Candlish,  quoted  by 
Hodge  in  "  Outlines  of  Theology,"  p.  516. 

t  Chap,  ix.,  §  1. 


312  PBEPABING   TO   TEACH, 

III.  Prayer. 

God  is  our  Father.  He  loves  us  ;  he  is  able  and  willing 
to  help  us.  We  have  access  to  him,  and  he  has  promised  to 
hear  us  when  we  come  to  him  in  the  name  of  Christ.  We 
are  invited  to  come  boldly  unto  the  throne  of  grace.  We 
are  assured  that  the  Spirit  maketh  intercession  in  us,  and 
that  Christ  ever  liveth  to  make  intercession  for  us.  It  is 
natural,  then,  that  the  child  of  God  should  seek  commu- 
nion with  his  Father  in  heaven.  Saved  by  his  grace,  kept 
by  his  power,  led  by  his  Spirit,  it  would  be  strange  if  the 
Christian  did  not  rejoice  in  the  privilege  of  going  to  God 
with  the  language  of  adoration,  thanksgiving,  confession 
and  petition  on  his  lips. 

And  as  prayer  is  the  natural  expression  of  religious  feel- 
ing, so  we  might  naturally  expect  that  the  religious  life 
would  be  promoted  by  a  prayerful  habit.  The  face  of  Mo- 
ses shone  when  he  came  down  from  the  mount  where  he 
had  talked  with  God.  Nothing  will  impart  radiance  and 
beauty  to  Christian  character  like  communion  with  God. 
He  who  would  be  God-like  must  walk  with  God  as  Enoch 
did.  He  who  would  resist  the  temptations  of  the  world  must 
descend  to  the  daily  duties  of  life  from  the  mountain-top  of 
prayer. 

But  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  regard  prayer  as  only 
a  means  of  heightening  our  religious  feelings  and  convic- 
tions, or  to  value  it  only  for  its  reflex  influence  upon  our- 
selves. One  element  in  prayer  is  petition.  God's  blessings 
are  given  in  answer  to  prayer.  God  says,  "  I  will  be  in- 
quired of  by  the  house  of  Israel."  Our  Saviour  says, 
"  Ask,"  "  seek,"  "  knock."  He  tells  us  that  earthly  parents 
are  not  so  willing  to  give  good  gifts  unto  their  children  as 
God  is  to  give  his  Holy  Spirit  to  them  that  ask  him.  Paul 
says,  "  Pray  without  ceasing."  "  In  everything  by  prayer 
and  thanksgiving  let  your  requests  be  made  known  unto 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  313 

God."  We  cannot  complain  if  we  lack  the  blessings  which 
we  have  never  craved.  The  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith  says,  "  Prayer,  with  thanksgiving,  being  one  special 
part  of  religious  worship,  is  by  God  required  of  all  men  ; 
and  that  it  may  be  accepted,  it  is  to  be  made  in  the  name 
of  the  Son,  by  the  help  of  the  Spirit,  according  to  his  will, 
with  understanding,  reverence,  humility,  fervency,  faith, 
love  and  perseverance."* 

The  subject  of  prayer  presents  difficulties  to  some  minds. 

1.  It  is  asked  how  the  unqualified  promise  of  our  Saviour, 
"  If  ye  shall  ask  anything  in  my  name  I  will  do  it,"  is  to  be 
reconciled  with  the  fact  that  so  many  prayers  not  are  an- 
swered, and  with  the  additional  fact  that,  in  the  nature  of  the 
case,  all  prayers  cannot  be  answered,  as,  for  instance,  when  on 
the  eve  of  battle  both  armies  pray  for  victory.  In  replying 
to  this  question  we  must  inquire  who  are  meant  by  "  ye  " 
in  the  passage  referred  to.  Does  Christ  pledge  himself  iu 
this  promise  to  answer  every  request  which  may  be  made, 
without  regard  to  the  persons  who  make  it  or  the  spirit  in 
which  it  is  preferred?  Surely  not.  The  promise  is  to  his 
disciples,  and  must  be  limited  in  its  application  to  Chris- 
tians. But  do  Christians  desire  that  their  requests  should 
be  unconditionally  granted  ?  Does  a  Christian  so  far  forget 
himself  as  to  presume  to  know  better  than  God  what  he 
needs?  Surely  not.  Then  the  words  of  our  Saviour  are 
to  be  explained  by  the  words  of  John  :  "  This  is  the  confi- 
dence that  we  have  in  him,  that  if  we  ask  anything  accord- 

J^n^jA^hhwiU,  he  heareth  us."  1  John  v.  14.     It  is  a~great 
blessing  that  God  does  not  answer  all  our  prayers. 

2.  It  is  said  that  since  the  physical  world  is  under  the 
control  of  law  it  is  irrational  to  pray  for  rain  in  dry 
weather,  for  a  prosperous  voyage  or  for  recovery  from  sick- 
ness. To  this  we  reply  that  a  theory  which  makes  God 
the  slave  of  his  own  laws,  which  represents  him  as  leaving 

*  Cap.  XX  i.,  2  3. 
27 


314  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

the  universe  under  the  exclusive  control  of  physical  causes, 
is  unscriptural.  We  believe  that  '"  God's  works  of  provi- 
dence are  his  most  holy,  wise  and  powerful  preserving  and 
governing  all  his  creatures  and  all  their  actions."  Believing 
this,  we  believe  that  the  area  of  prayer  is  as  wide  as  that  of 
our  wants.  Nor  are  we  doubtful  respecting  the  efficacy  of 
prayer  because  we  do  not  understand  how  it  is  answered. 
Whether  God  answers  prayer  by  a  direct  exercise  of  divine 
power,  or  whether  he  does  so  by  means  of  second  causes,  it 
matters  not.*  "  Prayer  and  the  answer  of  prayer  are  simply 
the  preferring  of  a  request  upon  one  side  and  the  compli- 
ance with  that  request  upon  the  other.  Man  applies ;  God 
complies.  Man  asks  a  favor;  God  bestows  it."f  This  is 
enough. 

3.  It  is  urged  again  that  if  God  has  foreordained  whatsoever 
comes  to  pass,  prayer  is  unnecessary,  since  it  cannot  change 
his  purpose.  But  God's  purpose  is  all-comprehensive.  He 
foreordains  the  prayer  as  well  as  the  answer  to  the  prayer. 
He  has  no  more  decreed  the  one  than  the  other. 

*  "  I  believe  that  God  commonly  answers  prayer  by  natural  means 
appointed  for  this  purpose  from  the  very  beginning,  wlien  lie  gave 
to  mind  and  matter  their  laws,  and  arranged  the  objects  with  these 
laws  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  wise  and  beneficent  ends,  for  the 
encouragement  of  virtue  and  the  discouragement  of  vice,  and  among 
others  to  provide  an  answer  to  the  acceptable  petitions  of  his  people. 
God,  in  answer  to  prayer,  may  restore  the  patient  by  an  original 
strength  of  constitution  or  by  the  well-timed  application  of  a  remedy. 
J  The  believer  is  in  need  of  a  blessing,  and  he  asks  it;  and  he  finds 
\  that  the  God  who  created  the  need  and  prompted  the  prayer  has  pro- 
•  vided  the  means  of  granting  what  he  needs." — Dr.  McCosh  in  Con- 
temporary Review  for  October,  1872. 

f  Chalmers,  quoted  by  Dr.  Hodge  in  "Systematic  Theology,"  vol. 
iii.,  p.  694. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  315 

LESSOJ^  XIL 
THE  FUTUKE  STATE. 

The  question  of  destiny  is  now  to  be  considered.  It  is 
appointed  unto  men  once  to  die,  and  after  death — what? 
Before  an  answer  is  given  to  this  question,  notice  must  be 
taken  of  certain  great  events  which  are  predicted  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  occurrence  of  which  will  bring  about  the  jBnal 
consummation.  These  are,  1.  The  second  advent ;  2.  The 
resurrection;  3.  The  judgment. 

1.  The  Second  Advent.— The  Church  as  Christ's  army 
is  to  push  its  conquests  until  Jesus  is  owned  the  world  over 
as  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords;  then  the  Lord  will 
come.  That  he  is  to  come  in  person  is  abundantly  taught 
in  Scripture.  He  left  the  world  with  the  promise  that  he 
would  return :  "  For  as  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread  and  drink 
this  cup,  ye  do  show  the  Lord's  death,  till  he  come."  The 
disciples  who  watched  his  ascension  heard  these  words  from 
the  angels :  "  Ye  men  of  Galilee,  why  stand  ye  gazing  up 
into  heaven?  This  same  Jesus,  which  is  taken  up  from  you 
into  heaven,  shall  so  come  in  like  manner  as  ye  have  seen  him 
go  into  heaven."  The  writings  of  Paul  abound  in  allusions 
to  "  the  appearing  of  our  Lord,"  "that  day,"  "his  coming," 
"  the  day  of  Jesus  Christ ;"  and  the  Apocalypse  closes  with 
the  prayer  which  is  so  often  on  Christian  lips :  "  Even  so, 
come.  Lord  Jesus,  come  quickly." 

2.  The  Resurrection. — The  Scriptures  clearly  teach 
that  there  is  to  be  a  general  resurrection  of  the  righteous 
and  the  wicked,  and  they  associate  this  event  with  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ:  "Many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the 
dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to  everlasting  life,  and 
some  to  shame  and  everlasting  contempt."  Dan.  xii.  2. 
"Marvel  not  at  this;  for  the  hour  is  coming  in  the  which 
all  that  are  in  the  graves  shall  hear  his  voice,  and  shall 


316  PBEPABINO   TO   TEACH. 

come  forth ;  they  that  have  done  good  unto  the  resurrection 
of  life ;  and  they  that  have  done  evil  unto  the  resurrection 
of  damnation."  John  v.  28,  29.  "  I  saw  the  dead,  small  and 
great,  stand  before  God :  and  the  books  were  opened,  and 
another  book  was  opened,  which  is  the  book  of  life ;  and  the 
dead  were  judged  out  of  those  things  which  were  written  in 
the  book,  according  to  their  works.  And  the  sea  gave  up 
the  dead  which  were  in  it,  and  death  and  hell  gave  up  the 
dead  which  were  in  them."  Rev.  xx.  12,  13.  "  We  who  are 
alive  and  remain  unto  the  coming  of  the  Lord  shall  not 
prevent  [precede]  them  which^are  asleep.  For  the  Lord 
himself  shall  descend  from  heaven  with  a  shout,  with  the 
voice  of  the  archangel  and  with  the  trump  of  God ;  and  the 
dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first.  Then  we  who  are  alive  and 
remain  shall  be  caught  up  together  with  them  in  the  clouds 
to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air ;  and  so  shall  we  ever  be  with 
the  Lord."  1  Thess.  iv.  15,  17. 

3.  The  Judgment. — Besides  the  doctrines  of  the  second 
advent  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  Scriptures 
teach  that  there  is  to  be  a  final  judgment,  and  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  that  these  three  events  are  to  be  contem- 
poraneous. The  following  are  among  the  leading  passages 
which  refer  to  this  subject :  "  For  he  hath  appointed  a  day 
in  the  which  he  will  judge  the  world  in  righteousness  by  that 
man  whom  he  hath  ordained."  Acts  xvii.  31.  "  We  must 
all  appear  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ,  that  every 
one  may  receive  the  things  done  in  his  body,  according  to 
that  he  hath  done,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad."  2  Cor.  v.  10. 
"  The  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  the  glory  of  his  Father, 
with  his  angels :  and  then  he  shall  reward  every  man  ac- 
cording to  his  works."  Matt.  xvi.  27.  "  When  the  Son  of 
man  shall  come  in  his  glory,  and  all  the  holy  angels  with 
him,  then  shall  he  sit  upon  the  throne  of  his  glory ;  and 
before  him  shall  be  gathered  all  nations ;  and  he  shall 
separate  them  one  from  another  as  a  shepherd  divideth  the 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  317 

sheep  from  the  goats ;  and  he  shall  set  the  sheep  on  the  right 
hand,  but  the  goats  on  the  left,"  etc.  Matt.  xxv.  31-33. 
"  Then  cometh  the  end."  "  The  heavens  shall  pass  away 
with  a  great  noise,  and  the  elements  shall  melt  with  fervent 
heat ;  the  earth  also  and  the  works  that  are  therein  shall  be 
burned  up." 

We  do  not  know  how  near  or  how  remote  the  end  may  be. 
We  do  know,  however,  that  when  Christ  comes  those  who 
are  alive  shall  be  changed  and  all  who  are  in  their  graves 
shall  come  forth ;  and  we  know,  moreover,  that  both  quick 
and  dead  are  to  appear  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ. 

In  considering  the  subject  treated  in  this  lesson,  we  shall 
speak  first  of  the  state  of  the  soul  between  death  and  the 
judgment,  and,  second,  of  its  condition  after  the  judgment. 

I.  Between  Death  and  the  Judgment. 

The  doctrine  of  our  Church  on  the  condition  of  men  be- 
tween death  and  the  resurrection  is  thus  expressed  in  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  :  *  "  The  bodies  of  men 
after  death  return  to  dust  and  see  corruption,  but  their 
souls  (which  neither  die  nor  sleep),  having  an  immortal  sub- 
sistence, immediately  return  to  God  who  gave  them.  The 
souls  of  the  righteous,  being  then  made  perfect  in  holiness, 
are  received  into  the  highest  heavens,  where  they  behold 
the  face  of  God  in  light  and  glory,  waiting  for  the  full  re- 
demption of  their  bodies ;  and  the  souls  of  the  wicked  are 
cast  into  hell,  where  they  remain  in  torments  and  utter 
darkness,  reserved  to  the  judgment  of  the  great  day.  Be- 
sides these  two  places  for  souls  separated  from  their  bodies, 
the  Scripture  acknowledgeth  none."  This  view  is  opposed, 
1.  To  the  doctrine  of  the  "sleep  of  the  soul;"  2.  To  that 
of  "  Hades ;"  3.  To  the  doctrine  of  "  purgatory."  Let  us 
notice  these  briefly. 

1.  The  Sleep  of  the  Soul, — Archbishop  Whately  has 

*  Cap.  xxxii.,  {  1, 
27* 


318  FEEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

given  the  weight  of  his  influence  to  the  revolting  idea  that 
the  soul  falls  into  a  state  of  unconsciousness  at  death,  and 
remains  in  this  condition  until  the  resurrection.  It  is  true 
that  the  Bible  does  speak  of  death  as  a  sleep  and  of  Chris- 
tians as  those  "  who  sleep  in  Jesus  ;"  and  were  there  nothing 
positive  on  the  subject  in  the  Scriptures,  we  might  think, 
perhaps,  that  the  reference  is-  to  the  soul  as  w^ell  as  to  the 
body.  But  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  those  who  ac- 
knowledge the  authority  of  the  Bible  can  entertain  this 
opinion.  The  dying  Stephen  saw  the  heavens  opened  and 
Jesus  standing  at  the  right  hand  of  God.  His  last  words 
were :  "  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit."  Jesus  said  to  the 
penitent  thief:  "  To-day shalt  thou  be  with  me  in  paradise." 
Paul  desired  to  "  depart  and  be  with  Christ,  which  is  far 
better."  To  depart  and  remain  unconscious  for  two  thou- 
sand years  would  not  have  been  far  better.  Christians 
have  died  in  every  age  of  the  Church,  and  are  dying  every 
day,  in  the  confident  expectation  of  entering  heaven  and  of 
seeing  Jesus.  We  shall  need  more  evidence  than  Whately 
has  furnished  to  assure  us  that  they  have  all  been  de- 
ceived.* 

2.  Hades. — This  doctrine  has  always  had  its  supporters, 
and  it  has  many  advocates  at  the  present  day.      Briefly 

^  "Here,  for  example,  is  a  passage  from  David  Brainerd's  last 
d?ys  :  '  Lord's  day,  September  27,  1747. — I  was  born  on  a  Sabbath 
day,  and  I  have  a  reason  to  tliink  I  was  new  born  on  a  Sabbath  day ; 
and  I  hope  I  shall  die  on  this  Sabbath  day.'  *  I  am  almost  in  eternity ; 
I  long  to  be  there.'  '  I  long  to  be  in  heaven,  praising  and  glorifying 
orod  with  the  holy  angels.'  October  6  he  lay  as  if  he  were  dying. 
He  was  heard  to  utter  in  broken  whispers  such  expressions  as  tliese  : 
*He  will  come;  he  will  not  tarry;  I  shall  soon  be  in  glory  ;  I  shall 
soon  glorify  God  with  the  angels.'  But  Archbishop  Whately  thinks 
that  for  a  hundred  and  thirteen  years  Brainerd  has  been  utterly  un- 
conscious, and  that  all  these  anticipations  are  not  to  be  fulfilled  for 
perhaps  several  thousand  years." — Adams'  "  Evenings  with  the 
Doctrines,"  p.  361. 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTi^INE.  319 

stated,  it  is  that  there  is  a  place  intermediate  between 
heaven  and  hell  which  is  the  abode  of  the  dead  during  the 
period  between  death  and  the  resurrection.  The  blessed 
dead  go  to  Paradise,  where  they  are  in  a  state  of  happine.^s, 
though  it  is  far  inferior  to  that  which  is  in  store  for  them  in 
heaven.  The  impenitent  dead  are  in  another  region  of 
Hades,  where  they  await  in  misery  the  judgment  of  the 
great  day  and  the  infliction  of  the  punishment  of  hell. 

On  this  it  is  enough  to  remark  that  the  foregoing  doctrine 
is  in  harmony  with  the  teaching  of  our  standards  in  so  far 
as  it  affirms  that  the  righteous  will  not  experience  the  high- 
est blessedness  until  the  resurrection.  But  it  is  at  variance 
with  them  in  affirming  that  there  is  a  middle  state  or  place 
which  is  the  abode  of  departed  spirits  between  death  and 
the  resurrection.  The  Bible  knows  nothing  of  this  middle 
state  or  place  of  abode.  Christ  we  know  is  in  heaven,  and 
those  who  die  in  Christ  are  with  him. 

3.  Purgatory.— The  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Eome 
respecting  the  future  state  is  embraced  in  its  teachings  re- 
specting heaven,  hell  and  purgatory.  Heaven  is  the  place 
of  highest  blessedness,  and  is  the  abode  of  three  classes  of 
persons :  first,  of  the  Old  Testament  saints  who  were  de- 
tained in  Hades  as  spirits  in  prison  until  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  when  they  were  led  out  in  triumph  ;  second,  of  the 
few  who  attain  perfection  in  this  life;  third,  of  those  Chris- 
tians who  die  without  being  perfect,  and  who  are  required 
to  make  satisfaction  for  their  sins  and  to  be  purified  by  en- 
during the  pains  of  purgatory.  Hell  is  the  place  of  end- 
less torment,  and  is  the  abode  of  all  heretics  and  of  those 
who  die  in  mortal  sin.  The  doctrine  of  purgatory  may  be 
stated  as  follows  :  The  atonement  of  Christ  only  delivers  men 
from  eternal  punishment.  Temporal  punishments,  and  espe- 
cially the  pains  of  purgatory  in  the  next  world,  still  remain 
to  be  endured  as  satisfaction  for  sin.  The  Church  of  Rome 
has  always  claimed  the  right  of  regulating  the  kind  and  de- 


320  PREPARI^G   TO   TEACH. 

gree  of  this  punishment,  and  she  has  done  this  in  three  ways  : 
(a)  By  indulgences.  The  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome  is 
that  the  "  temporal  pain,  owing  to  the  justice  of  God,  either 
before  or  after  death,  .  .  .  may  be  remitted  by  an  application 
of  the  merits  of  Christ  and  of  the  saints,  out  of  the  trea- 
sury of  the  Church,  the  dispensation  of  which  treasure  is 
given  to  the  bishops."  A  man  might  take  his  choice  of  do- 
ing penance  or  buying  an  indulgence.  (6)  By  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance.  Mortal  sins,  if  not  forgiven,  render  men 
liable  to  the  pains  of  hell.  To  be  forgiven  they  must  be 
confessed  to  a  priest.  He  then  absolves  from  the  penalty  of 
eternal  death,  and  prescribes  the  penance  which  must  be 
performed  as  a  temporal  satisfaction,  (c)  By  the  mass. 
This  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  and  avails  for  those  for  whom 
it  is  intended  by  the  officiating  priest,  whether  they  be  on 
earth  or  in  purgatory.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  this  doctrine 
places  the  destinies  of  men  in  the  hands  of  the  Romish 
priesthood  ;  and  it  can  readily  be  inferred  that  it  is  a  source 
of  great  power  and  emolument.  But  it  is  as  false  as  it  is 
pernicious. 

(a.)  There  is  not  a  syllable  in  the  Bible  which  lends  it  the 
least  support.  It  is  true  that  our  Lord  said  the  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost  shall  not  be  forgiven  either  in  this  world  or 
in  the  world  to  come.  He  did  not  mean,  however,  that  some 
sins  may  be  forgiven  in  the  next  world,  but  only  that  this 
sin  shall  never  be  forgiven.  The  Scriptures  teach  that 
nothing  that  defileth  shall  enter  heaven,  and  it  is  not  claimed 
that  men  reach  a  state  of  sinless  perfection  in  this  life.  But 
these  facts  do  not  prove  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  nor  are 
they  enough  to  show  that  the  Chi'istian  carries  the  infirmi- 
ties of  his  sinful  nature  with  him  into  the  next  world ;  we 
reach  a  different  conclusion  from  these  facts.  For  since  it 
is  true  that  men  do  not  attain  to  sinless  perfection  in  this 
life,  and  that  there  is  nothing  sinful  in  heaven,  and  that 
Christians  go  to  heaven  when  they  die,  we  conclude  that  the 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  321 

"souls  of  believers  are  at  their  death  made  perfect  in  holi- 


ness." 


(6.)  The  doctrine  is  based  on  a  false  assumption.  Those 
who  maintain  it  assume  that  Christ  has  not  made  a  complete 
satisfaction  for  sin.  Hence  there  is  great  similarity  between 
the  doctrine  of  purgatory  and  the  creed  of  a  certain  class 
of  Universalists.  The  latter  reject  the  atonement,  and  say 
that  God  always  punishes  men  for  their  sins.  Men  who  lead 
wicked  lives,  they  say,  must  expect  to  be  miserable  in  the 
next  world.  But  the  end  of  punishment  is  the  good  of  the 
offender,  and  the  result  of  it  will  be  universal  restoration  to 
holiness  and  heaven.  What  the  Universalists  of  this  class 
believe  respecting  all  men  the  Roman  Catholics  believe  re- 
specting all  who  go  to  purgatory.  The  answer  to  both  is 
the  same.  We  cannot  make  satisfaction  for  own  sins,  and 
we  need  not,  for  Christ  has  borne  our  sins  in  his  own  body 
on  the  tree. 

(c.)  The  doctrine  of  purgatory  contradicts  the  word  of 
God,  The  Bible  says  that  there  is  no  condemnation  to  the 
Christian,  that  he  hath  eternal  life,  that  when  he  dies  he  is 
blessed,  and  that  for  him  to  depart  is  to  be  with  Christ. 

II.  After  the  Judgment. 

The  statements  of  Scripture  in  respect  to  the  judgment 
are  very  explicit.  Thus,  we  read,  "  The  angels  which  kept 
not  their  first  estate,  but  left  their  own  habitation,  he  hath 
reserved  in  everlasting  chains  under  darkness  unto  the  judg- 
ment of  the  great  day."  Jude  6.  "  Then  shall  the  King 
say  unto  them  on  his  right  hand,  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my 
Father,  inherit  the  kingdom  prepared  for  you  from  the 
foundation  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Then  shall  he  say  also  unto 
them  on  the  left  hand,  Depart  Irom  me,  ye  cursed,  into  ev- 
erlasting fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels.  .  .  . 
And  these  shall  go  away  into  everlasting  punishment,  but 
the   righteous   into  life   eternal "  Matt.  xxiv.  34-46.     la 


322  PREPARING   TO   TEAHH. 

these  passages  the  Scripture  doctrine  of  hell  and  heaven  is 
unfolded — to  wit:  that  the  ^vi eked  shall  share  the  fate  of 
the  devil  and  the  fallen  angels  and  be  the  subjects  of  eter- 
nal suffering,  and  that  the  righteous  shall  be  welcomed  into 
the  enjoyment  of  everlasting  happiness.  Let  us  state  the 
doctrine  more  fully. 

1.  Hell. — The  teaching  of  Scripture  and  the  belief  of 
the  Christian  Church  is  that  the  impenitent  are  punished  in 
the  next  world,  that  the  punishment  is  everlasting,  and  that 
it  consists  in  pain.  This  doctrine  is  opposed  (a)  by  the 
Universal ists,  properly  so  called,  who  deny  that  any  punish- 
ment awaits  men  in  the  next  world ;  (6)  by  the  Restoration- 
ists,  who  admit  the  fact  of  future  punishment,  but  deny  that 
it  is  everlasting ;  (c)  by  the  Annihilationists,  who  agree 
with  the  orthodox  view  in  respect  to  the  fact  and  the  dura- 
tion of  future  punishment,  but  deny  that  it  consists  in  pos- 
itive suffering  or  pain. 

(a.)  The  Universalists.  The  Bible  says  that  God  is  not 
willing  that  any  should  perish,  and  that  he  is  the  Saviour  of 
all  men,  especially  of  those  who  believe.  It  says,  too,  that 
Christ  "  tasted  death  for  every  man,"  and  that  he  died 
"that  the  world  through  him  might  be  saved."  We  cannot 
discuss  the  meaning  of  these  and  similar  passages  which 
are  such  favorites  with  the  Universalists,  but  we  know  that 
they  do  not  teach  that  all  men  go  to  heaven,  for  the  Bible 
distinctly  asserts  that  some  do  go  to  hell.  "  These  shall 
go  away  into  everlasting  punishment;"  "The  Lord  Jesus 
shall  be  revealed  from  heaven  with  his  mighty  angels,  in 
flaming  fire,  taking  vengeance  on  them  who  know  not  God." 
To  say,  as  Ballon  says,  that  the  punishment  spoken  of  in 
the  Bible  refers  exclusively  to  sufferings  endured  in  this 
life  is  simply  absurd.  Better  renounce  the  authority  of  the 
Bible  at  once  than  trifle  in  this  way  with  its  most  solemn 
facts. 

(6.)  The  Restorationists.    A  great   many,  probably  the 


SUMMARY  OF  DOCTRINE.  323 

greater  number,  of  those  who  belong  to  the  Universalist  de- 
nomiDation  in  this  country  admit  that  there  is  a  punish- 
ment in  store  for  the  wicked  in  the  next  world,  but  they 
deny  that  it  is  eternal.  They  support  their  position  by 
saying  that  God  is  too  benevolent  to  allow  his  creatures  to 
suffer  eternally ;  that  it  would  be  derogatory  to  God's  maj- 
esty for  evil  to  have  a  place  in  his  universe  through  all  eter- 
nity ;  that  punishment  is  for  the  good  of  the  offender  and 
must  result  in  the  sinner's  restoration;  and,  finally,  that  the 
word  aionios  does  not  mean  everlasting  but  only  a  limited 
period.  To  which  it  is  enough  to  reply  that  we  are  not 
competent  to  say  what  God  may  or  may  not  do ;  that  there  is 
no  argument  against  the  continuance  of  evil  in  the  world 
which  would  not  apply  as  well  to  its  introduction  and  to  its 
present  existence ;  that  the  Bible  does  not  intimate  that  the 
punishment  of  the  wicked  is  a  remedial  measure ;  and  that 
if  the  words  used  to  express  the  duration  of  punishment  do 
not  teach  that  it  is  eternal  it  is  difficult  to  tell  how  the  idea 
of  eternity  could  have  been  expressed.  The  same  word  is 
used  to  express  the  duration  of  punishment  which,  in  a  co- 
ordinate clause  of  the  same  verse,  is  used  to  express  the  du- 
ration of  happiness.  "  We  must  either  admit  the  endless 
misery  of  hell  or  give  up  the  endless  happiness  of  heaven." 
(c.)  The  Annibilatiouists.  The  argument  mainly  em- 
ployed by  this  class  of  men  is  based  on  the  alleged  meaning- 
of  the  words  "  life  "  and  "death."  Put  into  syllogistic  form, 
it  comes  to  this :  Life  always  and  only  means  existence ; 
death,  non-existence.  But  the  punishment  of  sin  is  death  ; 
tlierefore  the  punishment  of  sin  is  non-existence,  or  extinc- 
tion of  being.  It  must  be  admitted  that  if  the  word  "  death  " 
is  correctly  defined  in  this  argument  it  overthrows  the  doc- 
trine of  eternal  punishment,  but  it  must  also  be  admitted 
that  it  makes  nonsense  at  the  same  time  of  half  the  passages 
in  which  the  word  occurs.  But  death,  as  descriptive  of  the 
pupishment  of  the  lost,  does  not  meao  annihilation  or  extinc- 


324  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

tion  of  being,  for  there  are  degrees  of  punishment,  but  no 
degree  of  death  in  the  sense  referred  to.  One  stone  is  as 
dead  as  another.  Death  does  not  mean  extinction  of  being, 
for  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  is  torment:  "And  the 
devil  that  deceived  them  was  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  and 
brimstone,  where  the  beast  and  the  false  prophet  are,  and 
shall  be  tormented  day  and  night  for  ever  and  ever.  .  .  . 
And  death  and  hell  were  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire.  This  is 
the  second  death."  Rev.  xx.  10,  14. 

2.  Heaven. — In  answer  to  the  question,  What  benefits 
do  believers  receive  from  Christ  at  the  resurrection  ?  the 
Shorter  Catechism  says :  "  At  the  resurrection,  believers, 
being  raised  up  in  glory,  shall  be  openly  acknowledged  and 
acquitted  in  the  day  of  judgment,  and  made  perfectly 
blessed  in  the  full  enjoying  of  God  to  all  eternity."  If 
the  Bible  fails  to  gratify  our  curiosity  by  answering  all 
our  inquiries  respecting  heaven,  it  does  not  leave  us 
altogether  in  the  dark.  We  know  that  this  mortal  shall 
put  on  immortality,  and  that  the  body  of  the  believer  is  to 
be  fashioned  like  unto  Christ's  glorious  body.  The  Chris- 
tian shall  see  Christ,  shall  behold  his  glory,  shall  be  like 
him,  shall  be  welcomed  into  the  joy  of  his  Lord.  Faith 
will  become  sight  and  hope  fruition.  Now  he  knows  in 
part,  but  then  shall  he  know  even  as  also*  he  is  known.  He 
•will  sin  no  more,  sorrow  no  more.  His  inheritance  is  incor- 
ruptible, undefiled  and  fadeth  not  away.  Tears  are  wiped 
away  from  all  faces.  Entering  heaven,  the  weary  finds  rest, 
the  wanderer  a  home,  and  the  pilgrim  leaves  his  tent  for  a 
city  that  hath  foundations.  Eartli's  sinning  Christians  shall 
wear  white  robes.  Earth's  sorrowing  dieriples  shall  waken 
notes  of  joy  from  harps  of  gold. 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  BIBLE. 


BY 

J.  BENNET  TYLER. 


28 


\ 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  BIBLE, 


LESSOJf  I, 
THE  PLACE  AND  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SABBATH-SCHOOL. 

The  Sabbath-school  has  come  to  have  au  important 
place  among  Christian  activities.  It  enters  largely  into 
the  thoughts  and  plans,  and  enlists  the  active  energies,  of 
a  large  portion  of  the  best  talent  and  the  most  devoted 
piety  of  the  Church.  It  opens  a  most  inviting  and  prom- 
ising field  of  labor — one  which  can  be  cultivated  with  com- 
parative economy  and  ease,  and  which  is  already  rich  in 
most  abundant  fruit  for  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord. 

I.  Its  Relative  Place. 

Negatively. — 1.  The  school  should  never  be  a  substi- 
tute for  home  training.  God  has  set  men  in  families.  The 
home  is  a  divine  institution.  Home  and  family  ties  consti- 
tute the  most  benign  feature  of  our  Christian  civilization. 
The  home  is  God's  first  and  best  agency  for  training  young 
children,  and  the  Christian  mother  is  the  best  teacher.  Right 
here  she  may  find  her  highest  sphere,  her  most  glorious 
opportunity.  It  is  her  high  privilege  to  love  and  cherish 
the  young  child,  and  to  mould  and  fashion  in  the  cherishing 
more  than  all  other  and  later  teaching. 

The  Christian  father  is  to  the  child  the  type  of  the  All- 
Father  in  heaven — po  r,  meagre  and  imperfect  type  indeed, 

327 


328  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

but  yet  the  best  and  truest  available.  The  genuine  Chris- 
tian home  should  be,  and  is,  replete  with  all  that  is  sweet 
and  true  and  elevating,  and  in  the  way  of  moral  and  relig- 
ious culture  it  ranks  above  any  and  all  other  agencies. 

Parents  have  the  authority.  It  is  God-given,  and  ob  the 
part  of  young  children  intuitively  recognized.  They  have 
the  custody,  not  for  an  hour  a  week,  but  all  the  week. 

Most  obviously,  God  designed  the  home  to  be  the  first  and 
best  agency  in  the  moral  and  religious  training  of  young 
children. 

2.  The  Sabbath-school  should  not  be  deemed  a  substitute 
for  the  church  or  the  preaching  service. 

The  church  is  the  divinely-appointed  agency  for  saving 
sinners,  young  and  old,  the  pulpit  is  the  great  moral  and 
religious  educator,  and  both  are  specially  ordained  of  God. 
The  school  should  never  directly  or  indirectly  interfere  with, 
or  take  the  place  of,  the  preaching  of  the  word  or  the  regu- 
lar services  of  the  church. 

3.  This  Sabbath  service,  in  the  house  of  God,  is  not  a 
secular  school  in  any  sense.  It  is  not  a  singing-school,  nor 
a  legitimate  place  for  fairs  and  festivals,  for  tableaux  and 
cheap  theatricals  and  absurd  dramatic  performances.  It 
should  not  be  considered  a  rostrum  for  itinerant  Sabbath- 
school  talkers,  nor  an  arena  for  pushing  forward  precocious 
children. 

Positively. — The  true  idea  of  the  Sabbath-school  makes 
it  a  subordinate  and  subsidiary  institution.  It  is  a  depart- 
ment of  the  church,  and  should  be  subject  to  its  most  care- 
ful and  affectionate  supervision  and  control.  If  adults 
should  be  considered  within  the  watch  and  care  of  pas- 
tor and  session,  why  not  the  children  ?  If  the  young  peo- 
ple in  any  capacity,  why  not  as  an  associated  and  organ- 
ized power  for  religious  education  and  training? 

Conceding  that  the  school  is  a  department  of  the  church, 
that  it  should  be  subordinate  to  and  included  in  it  as  the 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  329 

greater  includes  the  less,  and  that  it  is  entitled  to  its  closest 
scrutiny  and  most  loving  and  tender  care,  we  are  prepared 
to  assume — 

1.  That  it  is  its  most  important  arm  of  service,  (a.)  It 
embraces  the  most  easily  reached  and  most  impressible  part 
of  every  congregation.  We  have  right  here  the  Church 
and  State  in  embryo.  We  must  look  among  the  young  for 
the  great  majority  of  our  future  converts,  for  the  recruits 
for  rank  and  file,  for  officers  high  and  low,  for  the  solid 
citizens,  the  teachers  and  the  preachers  of  the  future.  (6.) 
The  school  is  an  organized  power  which,  properly  and  judi- 
ciously utilized,  is  capable  of  immense  possibilities  of  good 
to  the  cause  of  Christ  and  to  the  Church,  (c.)  It  can  and 
ought  to  subserve  the  highest  and  best  interests  of  the 
Church  as  an  educator  in  its  doctrines  and  polity  and  in  its 
benevolent  plans  and  purposes. 

2.  Its  recognized  place  and  relative  importance  entitle  it 
not  only  to  careful  supervision,  but  to  generous  support, 
(a.)  It  should  be  provided  with  a  cheerful  and  pleasant 
place  of  meeting.     Some  houses  are  all  parlor.     Not  a  few 
churches  consist  mostly  in  luxurious  pews  and  elegant  ap- 
pointments for  adult  worshipers,  very  little  money  or  com- 
fortable space  being  available  for  Sabbath-school  purposes. 
If  we  can  afford  handsome  houses  in  which  to  live  and  ele- 
gant churches  in  which  to  worship,  we  certainly  ought  to 
provide  cheery  and  attractive,  if  not  beautiful,  rooms  for 
this  most  important  service.     (5.)  The  legitimate  expenses 
of  the  school  should  be  provided  from  the  church  treasury, 
and  as  liberally  and  cheerfully  as  is  the  cost  of  the  gaslight 
and  the  fuel,     (c.)  The  library  and  papers  and  lesson  notes 
for  teachers  and  scholars  should  not  only  be  provided,  but 
official  cognizance  should  be  had  concerning  their  charac- 
ter.    Oidinary  caution  and  sagacity  would  seem  to  dictate 
that  each  Church  should  insist  that  its  own  views  of  truth 
and  doctrine  should  be  taught  through  its  own  formulas, 

28* 


330  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

and  lesson  notes  and  juvenile  literature,  prepared  by  its  own 
authorized  agencies,  and  also  that  unfit  books  are  not 
furnished  for  the  library. 

3,  The  relative  importance  of  this  department  of  Chris- 
tian work  would  seem  to  demand — (a.)  The  most  careful  and 
judicious  selection  of  teachers,  and  by  competent  church 
authority;  (6.)  Some  proper  and  adequate  provision  for 
training  teachers  for  the  future.  (For  appointment  and 
pledge  of  teachers,  see  Appendix.) 

II.  The  Purpose  of  the  School. 

The  great  object  of  the  Sabbath-school  should  be  Bible 
study  for  Christian  growth,  for  immediate  religious  impres- 
sions and  constant  Christian  culture.  It  should  embrace 
old  as  well  as  young,  parents  and  adults  as  w^ell  as  children. 
The  most  systematic  and  thorough  class  teaching  of  the  liv- 
ing W'Ord  should  be  its  leading  feature. 

1.  It  should  be  a  Bible-School. — The  short  service 
held  but  once  a  week  will  not  admit  of  complicated  sys- 
tems of  instruction.  Yet  the  truth  should  be  taught,  and 
in  the  best  manner  and  by  the  best  teachers  available. 
This  is  that  by  which  we  are  saved  and  sanctified.  It  is 
the  bread  of  heaven  for  young  and  old,  the  only  source 
of  spiritual  life  and  power.  Said  Sir  Walter  Scott  when 
about  to  look  his  last  on  earth,  "  Bring  me  the  book." 
"  What  book  ?"  said  his  daughter. — "  There  is  but  one 
book,"  replied  the  dying  man.  When  we  come  to  the  real 
source  of  spiritual  life  and  growth,  there  is  but  one  book. 

2.  It  should  be  more  than  a  School. — This  service 
for  Bible  study  should  be  infinitely  more  and  better  than  a 
mere  school.  It  should  be  pre-eminently  a  service  of  wor- 
ship and  song,  of  praise  and  prayer.  It  should  be  a  relig- 
ious service  in  the  highest  and  purest  sense,  and  the  very 
atmosphere  should  be  surcharged  with  spiritual  influences 
at  once  cheerful,  attractive  and  impressive. 


HOW   TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE,  331 

3.  It  should  keach  the  Heart. — Each  school  should 
have  a  single  and  distinct  design.  It  should  aim  with  all 
available  skill  and  culture,  and  with  the  most  intense  Chris- 
tian earnestness,  to  reach  the  heart  and  conscience.  It 
should  seek  to  illustrate  and  impress  the  one  truth  of  the  cur. 
rent  lesson.  It  should  seek  and  expect  immediate  spiritual 
results,  and  this  should  be  the  central  object  toward  which 
all  the  exercises,  whether  of  song  or  prayer  or  class  teach- 
ing or  review,  should  certainly  and  unerringly  tend. 

4.  It  should  Supplement  the  Home. — While  the 
school  is  not  designed  to  supplant  home  instruction,  it 
should  seek  its  cordial  co-operation  and  support.  The  school 
needs  the  sympathy  of  the  home,  and  the  child  is  rarely  fully 
reached  without  this  common  bond  of  union  and  interest. 

Moreover,  the  sympathy  of  numbers,  the  healthy  stimu- 
lus of  competitive  study,  the  social  and  religious  associa- 
tions of  the  school,  together  with  the  loving  labor  of  a  faith- 
ful teacher,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  a  most  helpful  aid  in  the  re- 
ligious training  of  which  the  Christian  home  should  be  the 
source  and  centre. 

5.  It  should  be  Subservient  to  the  Church. — The 
school  must,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  deal  largely  with  that 
part  of  the  congregation  which  is  in  its  formative  condition. 
Hence  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  inculcate — (a.)  That 
love  for  and  sympathy  with  the  church,  its  usages,  doctrines, 
polity  and  plans  of  missionary  operation,  which  underlie  all 
true  efficiency  in  any  particular  church.  (6.)  The  school, 
in  all  the  tenor  of  its  instructions  and  in  its  indirect  influ- 
ences, should  sustain  the  ordinances  of  the  church  and  en- 
courage attendance  on  the  preaching  service.  There  is,  as 
it  is  thought,  an  increasing  tendency  to  excuse  the  young 
people  of  the  schools  from  attendance  on  the  church  ser- 
vice and  the  social  meetings.  One  presbytery  reports  that 
only  about  one-fifth  of  the  members  of  their  schools  attend 
church  regularly.     The  tendency  is  as  alarming  as  it  is 


332  PREFARINQ   TO   TEACH. 

prevalent.  If  these  children  are  expected  to  love  the  house 
of  God  and  unflinchingly  sustain  its  ordinances  in  the 
future,  it  would  seem  but  ordinary  wisdom  to  cultivate 
the  habit  in  youth.  Our  schools  should  be  carefully 
guarded  against  anj  real  or  seeming  antagonisms  to  the 
church  and  its  interests.  They  should  be  thoroughly  loyal 
to  all  its  institutions  and  constitute  a  most  effective  force  in 
sustaining  and  perpetuating  them.  The  school  that  does 
not  plant  the  germs  of  church  unity  and  co-operation  is 
sadly  deficient  in  its  plans  and  purposes.  The  school  nur- 
tured and  cherished  by  a  particular  church  that  does  not 
subserve  its  highest  and  best  interests  is  an  impertinence 
and  a  superfluity. 

6.  It  should  be  a  Mission  Agency. — We  have  spoken 
hitherto  of  the  church  and  home  school.  The  mission  Sab- 
bath-school is  a  most  important  and  successful  force  in  mis- 
sion work.  It  is  wellnigh  universally  recognized  as  the 
pioneer  agency  in  all  judicious  plans  for  church  extension. 
As  such  it  may  often  take  the  place,  for  the  time  being,  of 
the  church  and  the  pastor. 

Ordinarily,  the  mission  school  should  mean  a  self-sustain- 
mg  church,  or  a  feeder  of  one  already  established,  and 
should  be  so  located  and  managed  as  to  become  the  one  or 
the  other.  It  should,  if  practicable,  be  under  church  super- 
vision, and  be  brought  into  relations  with  church  and  pastor 
as  speedily  as  possible.  Such  schools  in  cities,  between  par- 
ishes, in  rural  towns  and  on  the  frontier,  constitute  an  inval- 
uable and  most  effective  method  of  carrying  the  gospel  to 
the  destitute.  If  judiciously  located  and  carefully  nursed, 
they  often  very  quickly  become  preaching  stations  and 
feeders  of  existing  churches,  and  not  seldom  grow  with  great 
rapidity  into  vigorous,  self-sustaining  churches.  This  form 
of  home  evangelization  has  special  adaptation  to  our  wide, 
sparsely  settled  country.  It  should  come  into  the  plans  of 
each  individual  rhurch  as  an  easy  and  effective  means  of 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  333 

etimulal  ng  lay  activity  as  well  as  of  reaching  adjacent  des- 
titution. As  an  econoniical  and  promising  method  of  car- 
rying the  gospel  to  the  hearts  and  homes  of  the  families 
dwelling  in  "  the  regions  beyond,"  it  should  enter  fully  into 
the  plans  of  the  church  at  large. 


LESSOJf  IL 

OEGA^^IZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 
I.  Organization. 

Some  definite  organization  is  essential  to  efficiency.  Our 
government  has  its  national,  State  and  municipal  depart- 
ments, and  these  are  so  nicely  adjusted  that  all  work  har- 
moniously one  within  another.  Society  and  the  church 
should  not  be  less  definitely  and  exactly  organized.  There 
should  be  as  little  machinery  as  possible,  but  that  little  is 
essential  and  should  be  simple  and  well  adjusted,  and  it 
should  link  the  school  indissolubly  to  the  church. 

1.  The  school  should  by  organic  law  be  in  entire  sympathy 
and  co-operation  with  the  church  and  the  pastor.  Want 
of  harmony  here  is  fatal  to  usefulness  as  well  as  subversive 
of  good  order  and  the  natural  fitness  of  things. 

2.  There  should  be  an  annual  readjustment  or  election  of 
officers.  Not  for  the  sake  of  changes,  for  changes  are  often 
undesirable  and  perilous,  but  in  order  to  provide  for  changes 
of  administration  when  really  necessary. 

3.  The  officers  should  be  a  superintendent,  an  assistant 
superintendent,  and  if  the  school  is  large  more  than  one, 
a  secretary,  treasurer,  librarian  and  assistants. 

4.  The  superintendent  should  be  selected  by  and  with 
the   consent   and   author  ty   of  pastor    and  church,   most 


334  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

certainly.  If  the  church  itself  is  subject  to  the  care  and 
control  of  pastor  and  officers,  there  is  certainly  no  good 
reason  for  excepting  any  of  the  departments  of  the  church 
from  the  control  of  the  central  authority.  If  any  institution 
anywhere  should  be  most  carefully  and  affectionately  su- 
pervised, it  should  be  that  which  undertakes  so  largely  the 
religious  instruction  of  the  young  people.  Wise  pastors 
and  church  officers,  while  not  evading  just  and  proper  re- 
sponsibility, will,  on  the  other  hand,  never  be  officious  or 
intermeddling.  They  will  ever  exercise  their  functions  in 
school  as  in  church  with  tact  and  kindness  and  delicacy. 
They  will  not  foster  antagonisms.  They  will  not  suffer 
them  even  in  appearance.  Details  will  differ.  In  some 
cases  pastor  and  session  will  elect ;  in  others,  teachers  will 
nominate,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  session,  and  this  is 
perhaps  the  better  way.  The  wishes  of  a  faithful  body 
of  teachers  should  always  have  due  weight.  In  all  well- 
ordered  churches  there  will  be  cordial  co-operation  and  con- 
current authority. 

This  matter  becomes  very  simple,  and  is  in  fact  divested 
of  all  complication,  when  pastor  and  church  officers  are  in 
the  school.  Then  in  loving  sympathy  and  active  participa- 
tion they  will  govern  by  virtue  of  possession  rather  than  by 
abstract  right. 

5.  Subordinate  officers  of  the  school  should  be  selected 
by  the  superintendent,  with  consent  and  approval  of  the 
teachers. 

II.  Management. 

The  general  management  of  the  school  should  be  abso- 
lutely in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent.  He,  of  course, 
should  be  subordinate  and  accountable  to  pastor  and  church. 
But  for  the  highest  efficiency,  details  should  be  entrusted  to 
him  as  the  executive  officer.  A  wise  superintendent  will 
secure  good    >rder,  will  protect  his  teachers  in  their  class 


HOW  TO   TEACH  TKE  BIBLE.  335 

teaching  as  the  chief  feature  of  the  school,  "will  supply 
vacancies  and  adopt  all  practicable  means  of  promoting 
thorough  instruction  in  the  Word,  and  will  so  conduct  the 
general  exercises  of  the  school  as  to  illustrate  and  impress 
the  lesson  of  the  day  and  to  enhance  as  far  as  possible  spirit- 
ual efficiency  and  power. 

1.  Qualifications  of  Superintendent. — Great  care 
and  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the 
man  to  fill  this  important  office.  The  superintendent  should 
be — (a.)  If  practicable,  an  elder  or  officer  in  the  church. 
(6.)  He  should  be  a  symmetrical,  spiritually-minded  man. 
(c.)  He  should  possess  governing  tact.  Order  is  heaven's 
first  law.  A  school  cannot  be  effective  in  which  good  order 
is  not  preserved.  (cZ.)  He  should  have  executive  ability, 
should  know  how  to  set  others  at  work  and  to  work  easily  and 
smoothly  with  them,  (e.)  He  should  be  a  worker.  No 
superintendent  can  be  highly  successful  who  does  not  devote 
time  and  strength  and  persistent  labor  to  the  interests  of 
the  school.  In  a  w'ord,  the  superintendent  should  be  the  best 
man  available.  If  he  does  not  now  possess  the  above  qual- 
ifications, if  he  is  a  growthful  Christian  man,  by  the  grace  of 
God  and  the  cordial  support  of  the  school  and  the  church 
he  may  attain  to  them,  measurably  at  least. 

2.  The  Qualifications  of  Teachers. — ^he  standard 
should  not  be  so  high  as  to  be  impracticable  of  attainment. 
In  the  very  general  absence  of  training  classes  for  teachers, 
selections  must  be  made  in  most  cases  from  among  people 
of  moderate  qualifications,  and  from  the  ranks  of  the  busy, 
hard-W'Orked  men  and  women. 

3.  Secure  the  Best. — For  the  sake  of  Efficiency  the 
very  best  within  reach  should  by  some  means  be  secured. 
Aptness  to  teach,  love  for  and  sympathy  with  children, 
are  prime  requisites ;  culture  and  education  are  desirable, 
but  earnest  piety,  love  for  the  work  and  an  absorbing  de- 
sire to  be  useful  are  more  important  still.      Pastor  and 


336  PREPARING  TO   TEACH. 

churcli  officers  and  superintendent  should  compare  notea 
and  use  all  practicable  methods  to  enlist  the  maturest  and 
best  for  this  most  important  service. 

4.  The  Office  should  be  Magnified. — The  office  of 
the  teacher  should  be  invested  with  the  dignity  and  import- 
ance which  inherently  belong  to  it.  It  is  directly  recog- 
nized in  the  Scriptures.  It  should  be  in  the  church. 
Teachers  should  be  made  to  feel  that  their  duties  are  vastly 
important  and  responsible.  We  suggest  the  fitness  and 
propriety — (1.)  Of  careful  and  formal  election  to  the  office 
by  some  competent  authority,  such  as  nomination  by  super- 
intendent and  approval  of  teachers,  and  (2.)  Some  simple 
but  fitting  ceremony  of  induction  into  the  office.  This  may 
consist  only  of  prayer,  a  few  appropriate  words  from  the 
pastor,  with  public  assent  to  a  pledge  of  fidelity  on  the  part 
of  the  candidate.     See  Appendix. 

5.  The  Session. — One  session,  as  a  rule,  taking  all  inter- 
ests into  account,  is  probably  better  than  two.  The  time 
should  be  so  arranged  as  best  to  accommodate  the  greatest 
number,  and  best  to  help  and  not  hinder  attendance  of  teach- 
ers and  scholars  on  the  preaching  services. 

6.  The  Lesson. — Obviously,  the  whole  school  should 
have  the  same  lesson.  Without  uniformity  there  can  be 
little  unity.  With  different  lessons  in  the  several  classes, 
teachers'  meetings  and  general  reviews  will  be  of  course 
impracticable.  No  well-ordered  school  can  afford  to  do 
without  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

The  international  series  of  uniform  lessons  is  commend- 
ing itself  to  the  almost  universal  favor  of  the  schools  of 
our  own  and  other  countries.  The  movement  has  probably 
already  done  more  to  stimulate  Bible  study  than  any  one 
event  which  has  occurred  in  the  history  of  the  Sabbath- 
school. 

Lastly. — The  management  of  the  school  should  as  far 
as  possible  stimulate  and  promote  the  most  thorough  class 


sow  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  337 

teaching  of  the  Scriptures,  give  the  most  direct  aud  posi- 
tive spiritual  tone  and  direction  to  all  the  exercises,  and  all 
this  in  a  form  at  once  attractive  and  impressive  and  in  the 
closest  harmony  with  the  church,  from  which  the  school 
should  always  be  inseparable. 


LESSOJf  III. 


THE  TEACHEE'S  OFFICE.— ITS  SACREDNESS  AND 

POWER. 

I.  The  Sanctity  of  the  Office. 

Observe,  1.  Its  Divine  Appointment. — The  office  is 
clearly  recognized  in  the  word  of  God.  Teachers  as  well 
as  apostles  and  prophets  were  specially  set  apart  in  the 
early  Church  :  "  God  hath  set  some  in  the  Church,  first 
apostles,  secondarily  prophets,  thirdly  teachers."  1  Cor.  xii. 
28.  Aptness  in  teaching  is  one  of  the  essential  qualifications 
of  a  bishop  or  minister.  In  the  olden  timea  the. parent  was 
the  one  authorized  teacher  of  his  househoia  and  his  chil- 
dren. "  Thou  shalt  teach  them  diligently  to  thy  children  "  is 
one  of  the  earliest  of  divine  enactments.  The  most  thor- 
ough and  systematic  household*  instruction  was  repeatedly 
and  solemnly  enjoined  upon  God's  ancient  people. 

2.  The  Practice  of  the  early  Church  gives  additional 
sanctity  to  the  teacher's  office.  There  were  schools  of  the 
prophets  at  a  very  early  age.  Classes  for  instruction  in  the 
AV^ord,  organized  and  taught  in  the  synagogues  by  teachers 
skilled  in  the  laws,  were  common,  if  not  universal,  among 
the  Jews,  before  the  Christian  era.  The  early  Christian 
Church  doubtless  followed  closely  the  example  of  the  Jew- 
ish in  this  respect.*     The  preaching  of  the  apostles  and  min- 

*  Lightfoot   says   there    were   four    kinds    of  schools   of  the   law 
among  the  Jews.     (1.)  In  every  city  and  town  there  was  a  school 
29 


338  PREPARING   TO   lEACH. 

isters  of  the  early  Church  is  thought  by  many  to  have  aC' 
corded  more  with  the  right  idea  of  teaching  than  with  the 
modern  style  of  preaching.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
simple  ex]3osition  of  the  Scriptures,  house-to-house  teaching, 
familiar  conversation  on  the  word  and  face-to-face  question 
and  answer  engrossed  very  largely  the  attention  of  the 
niinisters  of  the  early  Church.  Philip's  preaching  Jesus  to 
the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (Acts  viii.  27-35)  was  obviously 
more  a  catechetical  teaching  exercise  than  the  modern  ser- 
mon. 

Peter's  message  to  Cornelius  and  the  "  many  that  were 
come  together "  (Acts  x.  27)  was  largely  conversational. 
Peter  was  probably  the  chief  speaker  or  teacher.  But 
"  they  of  the  circumcision  "  doubtless  expressed  their  as- 
tonishment, while  the  Gentiles  magnified  God.  "A  certain 
disciple  at  Damascus"  was  sent  to  give  sight  and  instruction 
to  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  Acts  ix.  10.  Apollos  sat 
at  the  feetof  Aquilaand  Priscilla,  and  no  small  part  of  Tim- 
othy's training  was  the  early  instruction  of  his  mother  and 
grandmother.  .»^ 

3.  Our  Loed's  Example. — Jesus  took  our  nature 
fully.  In  his  humiliation,  he  touched  our  humanity  at  all 
conceivable  points,  yet  without  sin.  His  example  sheds 
lustre  on  the  learner.  His  "practice  adds  tenfold  sacredness 
to  the  teacher's  office.  At  twelve  years  of  age  he  joined  the 
class  in  the  synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  and  sat  in  the  midst  of 

where  cliihh-en  were  taught  tc  read  tlie  law.  If  any  town  neglected 
to  provide  snoh  a  school,  the  men  of  the  town  were  excomrmuiicated 
till  the  scliool  was  established.  (2.)  There  were  fixed  and  settled 
preachers  and  teachers  of  the  law  in  their  synagogues.  (3.)  There 
were  "divinity  schools."  (3f  such  a  one  Gamaliel  was  professor.  (4.) 
The  Sanhedrim  was  not  only  a  judicatory,  but  a  school,  and  its  expo- 
sition of  the  law  was  liiial  and  conclusive.  It  is  alleged  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud  that  there  were  atone  t'me  in  Jerusalem  four  hundred 
and  sixty  synagogues,  each  of  which  contained  an  apartment  for  read- 
\ng  the  law  and  another  for  inquiry  and  study. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  339 

the  doctors,  "  both  hearing  them  and  asking  them  questions." 
Luke  ii.  46.  In  his  ministry  he  went  forth  "to  teach  and 
to  preach  in  their  cities."  "He  opened  his  mouth  and 
taught"  the  multitudes  by  the  sea  and  in  desert  places,  the 
group  gathered  in  the  publican's  house,  his  disciples  by  the 
wayside,  the  lone  sinful  woman  at  the  well  in  Samaria. 

II.  The  Teacher's  Power. 

The  power  of  the  teacher's  office  is  derived,  like  its  saLcr- 
tity— 

1.  From  its  Divine  Source. — God  in  his  wisdom  never 
institutes  a  line  of  human  duty  or  privilege  without  con- 
ferring at  the  same  time  the  requisite  power  as  well  as  au- 
thority to  carry  it  forward.  Our  Lord  sent  forth  as  his 
first  apostles  unlettered  fishermen.  They  had  to  cope  with 
bigotry  and  intolerance.  They  were  to  set  themselves  in 
opposition  to  their  countrymen,  to  wealth  and  learning,  and 
to  customs  which  in  that  changeless  Oriental  atmosphere 
had  gathered  strength  for  centuries.  They  were  charged 
with  the  difficult  task  of  overturning  the  old  and  venerable, 
and  of  superseding  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  ancient 
and  honored  Jewish  Church,  by  the  new  and  simple  relig- 
ion of  the  despised  Nazarene.  But  our  Lord  did  not 
leave  them  to  their  own  unaided  resources.  Before  sending 
them  forth  he  "first  gave  them  power."  He  conferred  upon 
them  all  needed  help — precisely  that  which  was  necessary 
for  their  difficult  work. 

Having  commissioned  the  army  of  Sunday-school  teach- 
ers going  forth  in  these  latter  days  in  his  nanie,  the  Master 
stands  ready  to  impart  all  requisite  grace  and  power.  Does 
any  lack  wisdom  ?  Let  him  ask  of  God,  "  that  giveth  to  all 
men  liberally  and  upbraideth  not,"  and  it  shall  be  given  him. 
Do  any  lack  strength  ?  The  strength  of  the  praying,  trust- 
ing soul  shall  be  "  made  perfect  hi  w«ihiess."  Do  any  lack 
heart  and  hope?     Let  such  cry  continually,  "Lord,  increase 


340  PBEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

our  faith,"  and  they  shall  possess  at  length  a  faith  that  over- 
comes  all  obstacles.  It  is  the  teacher's  glad  privilege  to  say,  "  1 
can  do  all  things  through  Christ  which  strengtheneth  me." 

2.  From  the  Nature  of  the  Truth  Taught. — God's 
truth  is  mighty,  and  must  prevail.  It  is  the  good  seed  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  has  innate  vitality.  Sown  by 
the  wayside,  among  thorns,  in  stony  places,  it  will  not  be 
utterly  lost.  Sown  in  good  ground,  carefully  watched  and 
cultivated — sown  amid  tears  and  prayers — it  will  certainly 
spring  up  and  bear  fruit,  some  thirty,  some  sixty  and  some 
an  hundred  fold. 

The  Sunday-school  teacher  seeks  not  merely  to  interest 
or  amuse  for  a  passing  hour — not  simply  to  instruct  the  in- 
tellect with  curious  and  valuable  lore;  he  deals  in  truths  of 
grave  import  that  have  to  do  with  eternal  interests.  The 
truth  he  teaches  is  the  revelation  of  God  to  man.  It  is 
a  divine  message,  and  is  fraught  with  inherent  authority. 
"  It  is  mighty  through  God,"  and  carries  with  it  a  power 
more  than  human.  It  is  the  grand  instrument  of  the 
world's  deliverance  and  salvation.  The  teacher  should  rest 
upon  the  word  as  the  warrior  relies  on  his  well-tried  wea- 
pon. The  word  of  God  is  the  sword  of  the  Spirit.  Let 
him  who  wields  it  know  that  he  is  armed  with  a  weapon  of 
tremendous  power.  Panoplied  with  the  complete  armor, 
with  the  breast-plate  of  faith  and  with  the  helmet  of  sal- 
vation, he  may  have  all  necessary  and  requisite  power. 

3.  From  the  Manner  of  the  Presentation. — There 
is  no  such  effective  method  of  presenting  truth  as  this  face- 
to-face  teaching.  Teacher  and  taught  are  brought  into 
actual  contact.  The  smile  of  recognition  and  approval, 
the  glow  of  sympathy,  the  power  of  personal  magnetism, 
so  subtle  and  influential  in  generous,  sympathetic  souls,  are 
brought  into  free  exercise.  The  address,  the  bearing,  the 
character,  of  the  teacher,  the  little  arts  by  which  in  close 
and  intimate  intercourse  we  learn  to  please,  become  import- 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE,  341 

ant  elements  of  strength.  More  than  this,  the  familiar 
conversation  in  which  pupils  join,  the  question  and  answer, 
illustrate  and  impress  truth  beyond  all  other  known  meth- 
ods of  presentation.  One  may  doze  listlessly  or  wander  in 
thought  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  during  sermon  or  lecture, 
but  when  he  joins  in  the  discussion,  and  gives  expression 
to  his  ideas  on  the  subject  in  his  own  language,  he  cannot 
well  fail  to  carry  something  of  the  subject  away  with  him. 

4.  From  its  Gratuitous  Character. — Not  least  among 
the  sources  of  the  Sunday-school  teacher's  influence  is  the 
fact  that  his  labor  is  gratuitous.  A  wise  and  competent  sec- 
ular teacher  may,  and  often  does,  have  a  potential  and  far- 
reaching  influence  over  his  pupils.  By  virtue  of  superior 
knowledge,  of  wholesome  discipline,  by  tact  and  gentleness 
and  obliging  good  humor,  such  a  teacher  may  secure  a 
lasting  hold  on  his  scholars.  But  the  duties  of  the  secular 
teacher  are  more  or  less  perfunctory,  and  his  relations  to  the 
scholar  assume,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  professional  character. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  faithful  Sabbath-school  teacher's 
sole  spring  of  action  inheres  in  his  Christian  love.  He 
sees  in  his  pupil  a  young  immortal — one  for  whom  Christ 
died,  one  on  wdiom  his  image  is  written  ;  that  image  may 
be  marred,  defaced  and  almost  blotted  out,  but  still  it  is 
there.  He  sees  in  every  neglected  child  a  possible  disciple 
and  heir  of  heaven — one  whom  the  Father  would  not  will- 
ingly leave  to  perish.  He  sees  in  the  truth  the-. instrument 
of  life  and  salvation.  He  sees  in  the  Sunday-school  a  con- 
venient and  efficient  means  of  bringing  the  neglected,  the 
lost  and  wayward  into  direct  and  vital  contact  with  the 
saving  power  of  the  truth.  This  Christian  love,  akin  to 
that  which  the  all-Father  exercises  toward  his  creatures, 
is  not  only  a  powerfully  impelling  force,  but  when  it  finds 
warm  and  persistent  voluntary  expression,  it  commends  it- 
self to  the  confidence  of  the  scholar,  and  becomes  a  source 

of  vast  and  extended  influence. 
29* 


342  pbefabi:nq  to  teach. 

5.  Fkom  the  Susceptibility  of  the  Taught. — Child- 
hood and  youth  are  everywhere  accessible.  The  avenues 
to  the  heart  of  the  child  are  not  yet  choked  by  pet  dogmas 
or  preconceived  and  perhaps  dangerous  error;  not  yet 
double  barred  by  prejudice  or  pride  of  opinion.  They  are  to 
a  great  extent  open  and  unguarded.  Children  have  an  in- 
tuitive reverence  for  sacred  things,  and  are  never  skeptical 
till  the  poison  is  sown  in  their  hearts  by  older  sinners.  The 
years  of  cool  suspicion  and  calculating  criticism  have  not 
yet  come.  Habit  has  not  yet  taken  hold  of  the  embryo 
man  with  its  giant  grasp.  Seed  sown  in  love,  and  tenderness, 
and  fidelity,  finds  in  young  hearts  a  soil  comparatively  good 
and  fruitful. 

6.  From  the  Confidence  so  easily  Won. — Confidence 
is  a  fruitful  source  of  influence.  Where  this  is  lacking 
there  is  an  utter  want  of  moral  power.  One  may  gain  the 
confidence  of  adults,  but  it  is  a  slow  and  tedious  process.  It 
is  accomplished  by  months  and  years  of  toilsome  effort. 
You  are  admitted  within  the  sacred  portals  step  by  step, 
and  often  under  protest  and  with  all  sorts  of  reservations. 
But  not  so  with  the  young.  Where  motives  are  apparently 
pure  and  where  love  is  manifest  the  task  is  easy.  A  little 
cheap  attention,  smiles  and  pleasant  words,  and  a  succession 
of  nameless  small  courtesies,  and  you  have  conquered. 

Confidence  once  won  and  securely  held,  your  power  is 
almost  limitless.  Once  thoroughly  established,  the  wise  and 
faithful  teacher  may  by  the  divine  blessing  easily  and  nat- 
urally transfer  it  to  Jesus,  the  better  and  truer  Friend. 

Far  be  it  from  us  to  assume  that  the  teacher  should  have 
to  do  with  children  only.  While  youth  and  children  may 
predominate,  we  trust  the  time  is  not  distant  when  the 
Bible  school  will  also  embrace  parents  and  adults. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  343 

LESSOjY  IV. 

HOW  TO   STUDY  A  LESSON. 

I.  The  Importance  op  Preparation. 

We  approach  this  subject  as  one  of  gravest  import. 
jNothiug  iu  the  whole  range  of  the  teacher's  effort  is  so  ab- 
solutely  essential  to  success  as  right  preparation  of  mind, 
and  heart,  and  life.  The  necessity  of  regular  and  thorough 
study  is  universally  conceded  in  theory,  and  yet  by  no 
means  sufficiently  recognized  in  practice. 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  some  of  the  reasons  why 
thorough  preparation  is  imperative. 

Notice,  1.  We  are  called  to  teach  wide-awake  boys  and 
girls  fresh  from  public  and  private  schools.  In  many  of 
these  schools  are  first-class  instructors — teachers  trained  for 
their  special  work,  and  in  the  great  improvements  which  of 
late  years  have  been  introduced  into  educational  methods. 

2.  We  teach  the  most  im^^ortant  of  all  truths — truths 
without  a  knowledge  of  w^hich  all  other  truths  are  utterly 
valueless. 

3.  Teaching  is  an  art — an  art  by  no  means  easily  acquired. 
A  few  rare  women,  and  a  lesser  number  of  men,  are  born, 
teachers.  Their  love  for  children,  their  knowledge  of  child 
nature  and  the  avenues  to  the  child  heart,  lead  them  some- 
times, with  little  or  no  technical  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
teaching,  naturally  to  follow  its  rules  and  intuitively  to 
teach  well.  But  with  the  great  majority  the  case  is  widely 
different.  If  we  would  do  the  best  work,  the  art  must,  as  a 
rule,  be  acquired  by  patient  and  persistent,  and  often  by 
long-continued,  effort. 

4.  Teaching  these  sublime  truths  of  the  Bible — this 
science  of  salvation — is  a  work  of  great  dignity  and  import- 
ance. It  is  a  work  which  should  enlist  the  eneriifies  of  the 
most  exalted  talent  and  most  devoted  piety  in  the  Church. 


344  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

And  yet  it  is  a  field  in  which  humble,  earnest,  lowly  souls 
may  find  acceptable  and  successful  employment  for  the  one 
or  two  or  five  talents  committed  to  their  charge. 

One  feels  like  taking  off  one's  hat  to  the  humblest  and 
obscurest  teacher  who  is  honestly  and  earnestly  trying  to 
lead  3^oang  souls  into  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth. 

A  reverend  doctor  of  divinity  asserts  that  the  time  is 
not  distant  when  S.S.T. — Sabbath-school  Teacher — will  be 
considered  a  title  of  greater  dignity  and  honor  than  that 
of  D.D.  or  LL.D. 

II.  How  TO   Study  a  Given  Lesson. 

Observe,  1.  Adequate  Preparation  Involves 
Work. — Successful  teaching  in  our  Sabbath-schools,  where 
there  can  be  no  compulsory  attendance  or  discipline,  means 
earnest  work,  especially  in  way  of  preparation. 

In  fact,  nothing  worth  doing  at  all  is  ever  successfully 
accomplished  without  regular,  persistent  labor.  The  matter 
of  preparation  for  teaching  is  certainly  no  exception.  Very 
many  teachers  make  a  fatal  mistake  right  here.  They  seem 
to  imagine  that  teaching  a  class  for  a  half  hour  a  week  can 
somehow  be  gotten  through  with  respectably,  and  the  re- 
quirements of  the  occasion  tolerably  met,  with  very  little 
thought  or  study.  The  error  is  as  vital  as  it  is  disastrous 
and  lamentable.  Success  in  tea»  hing  is  not  so  much  a  mat- 
ter of  leisure  or  talent  or  education  as  of  earnest  purpose 
-ind  persistent  work. 

2.  It  Involves  keeping  Ahead  of  Work.— Good 
business-men  drive  their  business,  instead  of  allowing  their 
business  continually  to  drive  and  worry  them.  Good  house- 
wives do  not  delay  the  sweeping  and  dusting  and  baking  till 
the  week  is  ended  or  the  guests  have  arrived. 

Teachers  who  mean  to  do  good  work  will  not  put  ofi'  till 
Saturday  night  or  Sabbath  morning  the  study  of  the  lesson 
of  the  coming  Sabbath. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  34r 

It  is  of  great  advantage  to  look  over  the  lessons  weeks  ir 
advance.  Obscure  passages  will  become  clear  by  contimi 
ous  attention,  hidden  beauty  will  be  revealed,  jxtints  will  at 
tract  the  mind  around  which  to  cluster  thoughts  and  illu? 
trations. 

3.  It  Involves  early  Study  of  the  Cukkent  Les 
SON. — Let  us  suggest  some  successive  steps  which  may  be 
profitably  followed  : 

Take  up  the  word  of  God  without  note  or  comment. 
Commence  at  once.  It  is  Sabbath  afternoon.  You  are 
through  with  the  teaching  of  the  day.  You  are  weary,  and 
strongly  tempted  to  lounge  or  sleep.  We  beg  you  not  to 
yield  till  the  lesson  has  been  looked  over  and  over  again. 
Take  it  up  next  morning.  Have  an  open  Bible  on  your 
dressing-case.  Look  over  the  text  while  at  your  toilet. 
Get  full  of  it.  Drink  in  something  of  its  wondrous  wealth 
of  meaning.  It  may  seem  obscure  or  tame  at  first,  but  as 
you  revolve  it  in  your  mind  you  will  see  in  it  a  marvelous 
beauty  and  significance. 

In  the  diary  of  Mrs.  Kitty  Trevylyan  the  maid  Betty  is 
one  of  the  prominent  characters.  She  was  a  model  of  an 
English  serving- woman  in  fidelity  and  attachment  to  the 
family,  but  of  a  fretful  disposition.  She  was  accustomed  to 
attend  the  preaching  services  of  John  Wesley ;  and  having 
found  the  new  life,  she  became  a  pattern  of  patience  and 
sweetness  of  Christian  disposition.  Her  mistress  was  a 
member  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  great  affliction. 
Betty,  after  her  conversion,  became  after  a  manner  her  re- 
ligious teacher. 

Striving  one  day  in  her  simple  way  to  console  her  afflicted 
mistress,  she  addressed  her  on  this  wise: 

"  Now,  Mistress  Kitty  my  dear" — for  this  was  the  way  she 
addressed  her  mistress — "you  should  remember  that  the 
promises  of  God  alway?  mean  more  than  they  say — never 
less." 


346  PBEPARINO   TO  TEACH. 

The  maid  Betty  is  made  unconsciously  and  aptly  tc  state 
a  great  truth.  These  grand  revelations  in  the  inspired 
word  mean  always  infinitely  more  than  the  words  express. 
Human  language  is  too  poor  and  weak  and  lame  to  give 
adequate  expression  to  the  wealth  of  meaning  and  signifi- 
cance revealed  as  in  a  glass  darkly  in  the  words  of  Scrip- 
ture. Every  teacher  should  cultivate  the  habit  of  independ- 
ent thought  and  study  of  the  sacred  text.  Study  of  this 
kind  will  soon  become  a  joy  as  well  as  a  means  of  moral 
and  mental  discipline. 

4.  Arrange  a  Plan  of  the  Lesson. — Throw  each  les- 
son into  a  series  of  topics.  Seek  out  the  points  which  seem 
most  important,  and  cluster  your  preparation  around  them. 

They  will  serve  as  pins  to  hang  your  knowledge  on.  You 
have  a  place  for  hat  and  coat  and  dress.  Business  papers 
are  filed  and  arranged  in  convenient  form  for  ready  use  and 
reference.  Order  is  heaven's  first  law  in  this  as  in  other 
things.  It  simplifies  and  makes  easy  our  mental  processes 
as  well  as  our  business  and  household  affairs. 

This  logical  or  orderly  method  of  study  makes  it  easier 
to  teach  and  less  difficult  to  remember. 

Better  still,  it  leads  the  teacher  almost  intuitively  to  select 
the  portion  or  portions  of  the  lesson  best  adapted  to  the 
particular  class  to  be  taught.  It  enables  one  more  intelli- 
gently to  teach  its  pith  and  marrow.  An  outline  something 
like  this  will  sometimes  be  helpful : 

Inquire — (a.)  Who  wrote  the  passage  ?  When,  and  for 
what  purpose  ? 

(6.)  What  is  its  scope  or  drift?  What  object  had  the 
writer  in  view  ? 

(c.)  What  other  passages  throw  light  on  this  ? 

(c?.)  What  words,  manners  and  customs,  or  difficulties, 
need  explanation  and  illustration  ? 

(e.)  What  spiritual  truth  or  doctrine  is  here  taught? 
What  for  me  and  mv  class  ? 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  347 

5.  Examine  Lesson  Notes  and  Commentaries. — Hav- 
ing studied  carefully  the  bare  text,  take  up  such  commenta- 
ries and  lesson  notes  and  helps  to  preparation  as  are  within 
reach.  Compare  carefully,  modify  plans,  correct  erroneous 
or  imperfect  conclusions,  enlarge  ideas  and  supplement  by 
all  sources  of  information.  Use  the  aids  available  freely, 
but  do  not  lean  too  heavily  upon  them.  They  are  designed 
to  stimulate, to  suggest  and  help,  but  not  to  support;  to  aid 
in  surmounting  difficulties,  not  to  carry  one  easily  and 
smoothly  over  them  ;  to  supplement  the  teacher's  prepara- 
tion, not  to  take  the  place  of  careful  and  independent  study 
and  thouojht. 

An  extensive  assortment  of  helps*  is  by.no  means 
necessary.  One  may  be  well  equipped  for  a  small  sum  of 
money.  In  fact,  with  one  set  of  lesson  notes  like  the  West- 
minster Lessons,  with  a  good  reference  Bible,  concordance, 
Bible  dictionary,  atlas,  pencil  and  note-book,  and  you  are 
fairly  equipped  for  Bible  study. 

A  thorough  study  of  a  few  helps  is  far  better  than  a 
hasty,  cursory  running  over  of  a  large  amount  of  material. 
Large  use  should  be  made  of  pencil  and  note-book  for 
jotting  down  thoughts  and  illustrations  as  they  occur  in 
reading  and  observation. 

6.  We  should  Learn  to  Utilize  w^hat  W'E  Know. — 
Knowledge  is  often  practically  useless  because  it  is  not 
classified  and  made  available.  We  are  not  likely  to  know 
too  much  about  any  given  subject.  But  we  may  often  ac- 
quire more  than  we  know  how  to  use.  The  knowledge  of 
some  people  seems  a  confused  mass,  without  definite  shape 
or  arrangement.  It  sometimes  runs  in  ruts  and  grooves,  and 
sets  back  in  stagnant  pools.  Some  speakers  are  learned  and 
profound,  and  yet  have  no  knack  of  selecting  and  arranging 
their  musty  lore,  and  so  fail  to  interest  and  instruct. 

How  often  do  we  listen  to  a  foreign  missionary  who  is  full 
*For  fuller  lists  of  appropriate  helps  for  teachers,  see  Appendix. 


a4S  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

of  facts  of  the  most  interesting  character,  about  which  every- 
body is  anxious  to  know,  and  yet  you  listen  to  him  by  the 
hour  with  disappointment,  because  he  has  no  skill  in  com- 
municating the  important  facts  of  which  he  is  so  full. 

Let  us  study  to  see  clearly,  to  know  something  of  each 
lesson  fully  and  thoroughly,  and  to  communicate  readily 
what  is  most  important. 

7.  Improve  the  Odds  and  Ends  of  Time. — A  wondrous 
gain  is  made  by  improving  odd  moments.  Have  a  Bible 
on  the  dressing-case  and  in  the  desk,  at  store  or  shop. 
Carry  note-book  and  lesson  notes  in  the  pocket.  Wise  im- 
provement of  little  fragments  of  time  while  waiting  at  rail- 
road depots  and  for  those  excellent  people  who  are  always 
late,  and  using  odd  minutes  that  occur  in  every  one's 
daily  life,  will  enable  the  busy  teacher  to  secure  an  amount 
of  preparation  that  would  be  out  of  the  question  without 
systematic  improvement  of  fugitive  moments.  A  friend 
who  is  among  the  busiest  of  railroad  men  is  one  of  the 
best  prepared  of  teachers,  and  his  preparation  is  made  al- 
most entirely  by  this  study  while  on  the  wing.  Give  time 
and  thought  and  study  even  though  the  subject  seems  fa- 
miliar. Both  subject  and  object  are  worthy  of  your  best 
thoughts  and  noblest  efforts. 

Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby  was  once  asked  why  he  gave  so 
much  time  to  the  study  of  familiar  subjects.  He  replied, 
*'  I  wish  my  pupils  to  drink  from  a  running  brook  rather 
than  from  a  stagnant  pool." 

Take  time  for  prejyaration.  Some  of  your  best  moments 
are  never  too  precious  for  this  great  work.  Forego  stories 
and  something  of  polite  literature.  Else  do  not  complain 
of  want  of  leisure.  You  are  in  earnest.  You  want  to  do 
good  work — to  interest,  to  reach,  to  save.  The  field  is  wide 
and  beautiful,  and  hopeful  withal,  and  the  Master  is  wait- 
ing to  bless. 

One  teacher — a  busy  merchant,  now  gone  to  his  rest — be- 


HOW  TO   TEACH   THE  BIBLE.  349 

fore  the  days  of  uniform  lessons  used  to  prepare  two  lessons 
each  week  and  teach  two  classes  in  different  schools.  He 
taught  and  labored  and  prayed  as  faithfully  as  he  studied. 
Sixteen  out  of  eighteen,  from  one  of  his  classes,  were  hope- 
fully converted  in  a  single  winter. 

8.  Study  the  Word  as  a  Means  of  Grace. — The 
teacher  who  is  not  a  growing  Christian  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  accomplish  the  best  results.  One  who  is  not  in 
actual  living  sympathy  with  the  truth,  and  who  does  not 
feel  its  power,  will  not  be  likely  to  make  it  felt  by  others. 
The  word  of  God  is  the  only  source  of  spiritual  life  and 
growth.     It  is  the  bread  of  life,  our  spiritual  food. 

The  study  of  the  divine  oracles  is  no  less  a  necessary 
means  of  grace  than  is  prayer  or  attendance  on  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  house  of  God. 

Lastly,  We  should  Study  Prayerfully. — God  is  his 
own  interpreter.  The  Spirit  will  take  of  the  things  of  God, 
and  will  show  them  to  us  in  something  of  their  intrinsic 
beauty.  He  alone  can  so  light  up  the  sacred  page  that  we 
shall  understand  its  meaning  and  feel  its  power.  He  will 
sanctify  the  truth  to  the  teacher,  and  make  it  the  power  of 
God  to  the  salvation  of  the  taught.  His  special  presence  may 
be  had  for  the  asking.  There  is  a  preparation,  a  teaching 
power,  that  comes  only  in  answer  to  prayer.  True  success  iu 
this,  as  in  other  departments  of  Christian  work,  is  largely  a 
matter  of  spiritual  life. 


LESSOjY  v. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  A  LESSON. 
Strive,  1.  To  Interest,  2.  To  Instruct,  3.  To  Im- 


press. 


Good  teaching  implies  thorough  preparation.     The  les- 
son needs  to  be  studied  not  only  in  the  light  of  what  is 


89 


350  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

likely  to  be  taught,  but  also  A?ith  careful  reference  to  emer- 
gencies likely  to  arise  in  teaching.  To  teach  thoroughly 
and  efficiently,  one  needs  to  know  vastly  more  on  any  given 
subject  than  can  possibly  be  taught  at  a  single  session. 
An  unexpected  question  of  a  bright  pupil  often  leads  the 
poorly  prepared  teacher  to  feel  most  keenly  the  need  of 
having  studied  all  phases  of  the  subject.  Above  all  should 
the  teacher  endeavor  earnestly  to  obtain  clear  and  distinct 
views  of  the  precise  truth  to  be  taught.  It  will  be  well  to 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  good  teaching  is  not  an  easy 
task.  Let  no  one  delude  himself  with  the  idea  that  the 
art  is  easily  acquired.  Appreciating  the  difficulties  of  the 
case,  and  firmly  and  squarely  meeting  them,  is  the  first  step 
in  overcoming  them. 

I.  General  Principles. 

While  methods  must  always  vary  with  circumstances  and 
be  adapted  to  the  diverse  needs  and  capacities  of  teacher 
and  taught,  certain  principles  which  underlie  all  methods 
are  ever  the  same.  It  is  important  to  keep  some  of  these  in 
view. 

1.  Simplicity. — Simplicity  in  language  should  be  care- 
fully sought.  It  is  a  prime  requisite  in  writing  and  speak- 
ing, and  is  not  less  important  in  teaching.  Whilst  we 
should  never  be  senseless  or  childish  or  indulge  in  baby- 
talk  in  our  teaching,  we  shall  never  go  amiss  in  the  use  of 
short  Saxon  words.  We  should  also  carefully  avoid  the  use 
(if  words  which  we  do  not  ourselves  fully  understand. 

2.  Clearness. — Not  only  should  choice  be  made  of  such 
words  and  phrases  as  will  clearly  convey  our  meaning,  but 
we  should  strive  so  to  teach  that  we  cannot  be  misunder- 
stood. A  short  word  is  always  better  than  a  long  one. 
Words  in  common  use  among  those  we  teach  are  better 
than  such  as  to  us  may  seem  more  choice  or  elegant.  Call 
a  spade  a  spade  rather  an  .^jlongated  imj)lement  of  husbandry. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  351 

Call  home  home  rather  than  a  place  of  residence.  Call  a 
blacksmith  a  blacksmith  rather  than  an  artisan  in  iron. 
While  we  often  underrate  the  capacity  and  intelligence  of  chil- 
dren, we  are  apt  to  forget  that  their  vocabulary  is  limited  and 
that  they  often  get  very  imperfect  and  erroneous  views  of  the 
meaning  of  words,  and  confound  words  of  similar  sound  or 
construction,  but  with  widely  distinct  meanings.  Mr.  Gro- 
ser  very  appropriately  says :  "  Never  use  a  hard  word  when 
an  easier  one  will  answer  the  purpose."  Using  long,  hard 
words  is  a  very  common  fault — one  that  needs  to  be  con- 
stantly guarded  against.  We  should  study  the  language  in 
"Nvhich  our  pupils  think  and  talk. 

3.  Ambiguity. — It  is  often  necessary  to  use  words  which 
have  more  than  one  meaning.  Such  words,  when  used  in 
teaching  or  when  they  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  should  be 
carefully  explained.  "Tares  among  wheat"  will  sometimes 
suggest  to  the  child  rents  in  the  garment  rather  than  the 
true  meaning. 

4.  Accuracy. — Language  is  at  best  an  imperfect  medium 
of  thought.  It  is  often  difficult  to  make  our  thoughts  so 
clear  as  to  be  perfectly  understood  even  by  intelligent 
adults.  The  difficulty  is  more  apparent  in  our  intercourse 
with  children.  The  language  of  the  Bible  is  often  highly 
figurative,  and  our  ideas  of  God,  of  infinitude  and  eternity, 
are  only  imperfectly  conceived  through  types,  metaphors, 
analogies  and  adaptation  of  thought  and  language  to  our 
limited  capacities. 

Great  care  should  be  had  in  the  use  and  explanation  of 
figurative  language.  The  child  who  ran  home  crying,  af- 
ter hearing  a  noted  Sunday-school  talker  discourse  on  the 
fire  and  hammer  that  breaks  the  flinty  rock  in  pieces,  and 
for  a  long  time  after  avoided  the  neighboring  marble-yard, 
fearing  that  she  would  somehovv  be  subjected  to  the  hammer- 
ing process,  was  a  fair  representative  of  a  large  class  of 
children  who,  through  the  careless  use  of  figurative  Ian- 


352  PREPABINO   TO   TEACH, 

guage  often  entirely  misconceive  the  real  scope  and  meai* 
ing  of  what  they  hear. 

Example. — In  teaching  the  general  truth  that  God 
created  all  things,  it  is  well  always  to  explain  the  difference 
between  creation  and  manufacture.  While  God  is  the  abso- 
lute and  only  Creator,  man  has  a  wondrous  power  of  putting 
the  raw  material  together  in  all  beautiful  and  useful  forms. 
Yet  man  creates  absolutely  nothing. 

5.  Style. — Teachers  do  not  need  to  be  rhetoricians  in 
any  technical  sense,  but  the  power  of  clear  and  concise 
statement,  and  the  proper  construction  of  sentences,  should 
be  constantly  studied.  Explanations  are  often  muddy  and 
unintelligible  from  lack  of  careful  attention  to  this  matter. 
So  of  questions  asked.  An  explanation  should  be  so  stated 
as  to  bring  out  not  only  the  significance  of  the  obscure 
word  or  passage,  but  also  the  exact  meaning  of  him  who  ex- 
plains it.  Questions  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  pu- 
pil may  know  precisely  what  the  questioner  is  driving  at. 
Blind,  vague  questions  are  very  common. 

{a.)  While  we  should  aim  to  be  concise  in  statement, 
too  great  terseness  should  be  avoided  in  teaching  young 
children.  Little  details  are  with  them  essential,  not  only  in 
order  to  secure  interest  and  attention,  but  also  to  make  them 
fully  understand  what  is  taught.  The  same  idea  should 
be  repeated  in  different  language  and  brought  out  in  various 
aspects. 

(6.)  While  style  should  often  be  somewhat  diffuse,  it 
should  never  be  discursive.  Young  teachers  should  espe- 
cially guard  against  wandering  from  the  subject.  Attention 
should  be  confined  strictly  to  the  lesson  in  hand.  Otherwise 
our  teaching  will  be  likely  to  degenerate  into  vague  and 
pointless  platitudes. 

(c.)  To  be  highly  effective  our  style  must  have  vividness 
and  point.  True  teaching  has  always  a  direct  and  positive 
purpose.   We  should  aim  not  only  to  feel  the  truth  in  some- 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  353 

thing  of  its  real  inteusity  and  force,  but  to  bring  it .  ut  clearly 
and  accurately,  and  with  such  graphic  vividness  of  voice 
and  manner  and  real  hearty  earnestness  as  to  make  it  seen 
and  felt  by  our  scholars.  We  should  aim  at  such  directness 
of  style  as  will  bring  the  truth  home  to  the  heart  and  con- 
science of  our  pupils.  The  truth  of  God  has  always  a  per- 
sonal bearing  on  each  and  every  one.  It  is  the  teacher's 
work  to  bring  out  this  special  significance  of  the  truth  he 
teaches. 

This  style  of  teaching  will  enable  us  to  bring  the  lesson 
down  to  every-day  duties  and  trials  and  temptations.  The 
vices  condemned  and  the  virtues  commended  should  not  be 
the  far  off,  the  imaginary,  the  impossible,  but  the  actual 
and  real,  and  such  as  pertain  to  the  homely  work-a-day 
life  of  average  boys  and  girls.  Short,  pointed  questions,  or 
or  a  remark  abruptly  uttered,  will  often  prove  a  great  source 
of  power  in  this  direction. 

Example. — If  you  neglect  to  obey  Christ  now%  will  you 
be  likely  to  do  so  when  engaged  in  business?  When  you 
are  old  or  sick  ? 

Joseph  was  a  Christian  and  a  prophet  at  seventeen,  Sam- 
uel from  his  infancy.     What  should  this  teach  you  ? 

The  price  of  our  salvation  was  the  sacrifice  of  our  Lord 
on  Calvary.    How  great  must  be  the  love  that  prompted  it ! 

We  have  somewhere  met  with  something  like  this  state- 
ment:— 

The  conditions  of  eflfective  teaching  consist — 

1.  In  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught. 

2.  In  ability  to  set  it  forth  in  natural  logical  order  and 
to  bring  it  to  the  plane  of  the  pupil's  thought,  and  wdthin 
the  range  of  his  vocabulary  and  mental  vision,  so  that  it 
will  be  measurably  understood  and  seen  and  felt. 

3.  In  quick  perception  of  the  pupil's  progress  and  patient 
waiting  for  its  further  development. 

4.  In  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  scholar, 

HO* 


354  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

The  first  three  may  be  called  the  laws  of  the  profession 
of  teaching.  The  fourth  will  almost  certainly  follow  the 
skillful  handling  of  those  laws. 

II.  Manner  in  Teaching. 
Manner  is  very  important  with  adults.  It  is  almost  every- 
thing to  a  child.  The  influence  of  many  a  good  man  is  al- 
most frittered  away  by  mere  faults  of  manner.  We  have 
space  only  to  mention  a  few  points  to  which  special  attention 
should  be  directed. 

1.  The  teacher's  manner  should  be  very  patient.  If  we 
are  physically  weak  or  weary  or  irritable,  we  should  study 
not  to  show  it.  Our  scholars  are,  perchance,  restless  and  in- 
attentive. Let  us  remember  that  we  were  once  young  and 
restive,  and  maybe  wild  and  thoughtless.  How  very  patient 
somebody  must  needs  have  been  with  us — with  our  restless 
inattention,  and  perhaps  wild  and  willful  neglect ! 

Moreover,  much  of  the  restlessness  of  childhood  is  the 
mere  overflow  of  excessive  animal  life.  Let  us  by  no  means 
seek  to  crush  it,  but  rather  patiently  to  give  it  proper  tone 
and  direction. 

2.  We  should  be  always  and  uniformly  polite.  None  are 
more  sensitive  to  little  cheap  attentions  than  the  young. 
The  smallest  child  has  rights  and  sensibilities  which  older 
persons  are  bound  sacredly  to  respect.  A  nod,  a  smile,  a 
pleasant  word  on  the  street,  and  little  attentions  to  per- 
sonal ease  and  comfort,  are  never  lost  or  thrown  away. 
"  The  small,  sweet  courtesies  of  life  "  are  doubly  dear  to  the 
young  people. 

3.  Our  manner  should  be  encoumging.  Nothing  so  re- 
pels and  depresses  as  continual  faultlinding.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  word  or  look  of  commendation  is  joy  and  sunshine 
to  many  a  child,  faint  gleams  of  which,  perchance,  but  seldom 
light  up  their  sombre  and  cloudy  life.  Seek  for  something 
to  commend.     "  I  am  glad  you  are  early,  John."    "  Susie, 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  355 

a  little  more  study,  and  you  will  have  your  lesson  perfectly." 
Generous,  encouraging  words  such  as  these  sometimes  work 
wonders  with  a  certain  class  of  pupils.  Parents  as  well  as 
teachers  make  a  fearful  mistake  in  neglecting  to  encourage 
well-doing  on  the  part  of  their  children.  Benjamin  West 
says,  "  My  mother's  kiss  made  me  a  painter."  The  sympa- 
thetic hand  on  the  shoulder  and  the  encouraging  words 
spoken  many  years  ago  to  John  B.  Gough  still  thrill  and 
re-echo  round  the  world. 

4.  Our  manner  should  be  affectionate.  It  is  not  enough 
to  love  our  scholars ;  we  must  show  our  love.  Some  people 
have  undoubted  love  somewhere  about  them,  but  you  would 
not  suspect  it  on  a  casual  acquaintance.  Cold  and  icy  and 
heartless  as  they  seem,  they  may  prove,  after  a  five  or  ten 
years'  acquaintance,  to  be  kind  and  lovable  people.  But 
the  children  can't  wait  so  long.  They  are  hungry  for  a  love 
that  sparkles  and  shines — for  a  love  that  lights  up  the  face 
and  tingles  along  the  finger-ends,  that  finds  expression  in 
pleasant  words,  and  in  numberless  little  acts  of  kindness  and 
courtesy  that  young  people  are  so  quick  to  see  and  so  eager 
to  appreciate.  A  manner  that  is  unmistakably  affectionate 
is  everywhere  a  most  potential  force.  It  is  emphatically  a 
power  with  children.  A  timid  rap  was  heard  at  the  door  of 
a  lady  friend.  The  door  was  opened,  and  a  little  child 
came  toddling  in.  She  climbed  up  upon  her  auntie's  lap* 
and  then  two  white  arms  were  wound  around  her  neck.  "  I 
always  loves  you,  auntie,"  said  the  child.  "Why,  daugh- 
ter?" "Oh,  'cause.  Auntie  Hattie,  I  always  knows  that  you 
loves  me."  Make  the  children  knovv  that  you  love  them, 
and  you  may  mould  them  as  you  will. 

Methods  of  teaching  will  be  more  particularly  discussed 
in  the  next  chapter. 


356  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

LESSOJV    YL 
HOW  TO  TEACH  A  LESSON.— Continued. 

I.  Methods. 

We  have  treated  of  some  general  principles  in  the  pre- 
ceding lesson.  Method  may  be  said  to  be  the  practical 
application  of  these  principles. 

Certain  successive  steps  in  teaching  a  class  may  be  stated 
as  follows : 

1.  It  is  Well  to  have  a  Plan. — In  teaching  as  in 
preparing  a  lesson,  it  is  well  to  have  a  distinct  outline  or 
plan.  Let  it  be  simple,  in  natural  order,  and  usually  in 
the  order  presented  in  the  lesson.  It  is  by  no  means 
necessary  or  wise  to  parade  one's  plan  in  a  fussy  manner 
from  firstly  to  sixteenthly.  But  if  the  lesson  is  me- 
thodically arranged,  it  will  be  more  easily  taught,  better 
remembered  and  more  readily  and  closely  adapted  to  the 
class  and  the  occasion.  Natural  and  logical  arrangement 
is  far  better  than  such  devices  as  the  five  P's  and  the  three 
S's,  for  it  is  always  available,  and  its  force  is  inherent 
in  the  nature  of  things.  A  poor  plan  is  better  than  none, 
and  one's  own  is  often  better  than  another's,  provided  it  is 
thoughtfully  and  carefully  digested. 

2.  Keview. — The  first  step  in  class  teaching  should  always 
be  a  brief  review  of  the  preceding  lesson.  Three  to  five  min- 
utes of  careful  and  judicious  review  of  the  last  week's  les- 
son will  often  do  more  toward  fixing  it  in  the  memory  than 
the  half  hour's  teaching. 

Detached,  isolated  knowledge,  like  single,  separate  links 
in  a  chain,  is  of  little  use,  and  is  usually  soon  forgotten ; 
welded  to  what  is  already  knowai,  and  to  that  which  is  after- 
ward acquired,  it  becomes  a  connected  chain  of  ever-in- 
creasing strength  and  utility.     Besides,  recalling  what  has 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  357 

gone  before  often  throws  necessary  and  essential  light  on 
what  is  now  to  be  studied.  AVe  cannot  achieve  the  best 
success  in  teaching  without  regular  and  frequent  reviews. 

3.  Eecitation. — We  take  it  for  granted  that  a  good 
teacher  will  insist  on  a  certain  amount  of  memorizing  of 
the  Scriptures.  Memorizing,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  correct  knowledge,  and  it  is  sadly  neglect- 
ed. While  hearing  a  recitation  by  no  means  constitutes 
the  whole  of  teaching,  we  have  yet  to  learn  if  there  be  any 
better  foundation  of  knowledge  than  committing  to  memory 
first  principles.  Some  at  leas:t  of  the  precious  gems  of  Bi- 
ble truth  should  be  securely  fastened  in  the  memory.  No- 
thing can  possibly  compensate  for  the  loss — for  sore  and 
grievous  loss  it  is — if  in  childhood  some  portions  of  the 
word  of  God  are  not  committed  to  memory.  The  memory 
should  not  be  crammed  with  whole  chapters,  nor  the  time 
given  up  to  mere  recitation,  but  selected  portions  of  Scrip- 
ture should  be  thoroughly  and  accurately  learned,  and  time 
enough  given  to  recitation  to  test  the  pupil's  knowdedge. 

4.  Simultaneous  Teaching. — We  should  avoid  teach- 
ing pupils  separately,  one  by  one,  but  should  rather  teach  the 
whole  class  simultaneously.  If  one  scholar  recites,  let  the 
whole  class  look  over  and  note  errors.  If  the  class  is 
questioned,  avoid  regular  rotation,  and  quickly  and  adroitly 
skip  from  one  to  another,  so  as  to  engage  the  attention  of 
all. 

We  lately  listened  in  a  large  teachers'  meeting  to  a  dis- 
cussion on  this  subject,  during  which  a  considerable  number 
of  the  teachers  stated  that  they  taught  the  lesson  over 
several  times,  taking,  perchance,  first  one  end  of  the  class, 
then  the  middle  and  then  the  farther  portion,  with  no  at- 
tempt to  teach  the  whole  class  at  once. 

Such  a  method  involves  a  fearful  waste  of  time  and 
strength,  and  is  utterly  subversive  of  good  order  and  disci- 
pline.    While  one  portion  of  the  class  is  being  taught,  the 


358  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

other   is    in   disorder,   and    maybe    disturbing-   the   whole 
Bchool. 

5.  Geography  and  History. — While  great  care  should 
be  had  lest  too  much  time  be  devoted  to  unimportant  themes, 
it  is  sometimes  wise,  especially  with  restless  boys  of  a  certain 
age,  to  devote  considerable  attention  to  sacred  geography, 
historical  characters  and  the  manners  and  customs  of  Bible 
times.  There  is  no  easier  or  surer  way  to  interest  some  pu- 
pils than  to  enlist  them  in  the  study  of  the  geography  of 
Palestine.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  grand  historical 
personages  of  the  olden  time  and  the  unchanging  customs 
of  the  Orientals.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  masters  of  an- 
cient and  modern  literature  to  devote  considerable  space  to 
detailed  descriptions  of  places  that  have  become  historic. 
So,  in  Sunday-school  teaching,  Nazareth  and  Bethlehem  and 
Tiberias  and  the  mountains  of  Galilee  may  be  ever  asso- 
ciated with,  and  serve  to  fasten  in  the  mind,  the  precious 
words  of  our  Lord.  They  may  often  furnish  a  beautiful 
and  varied  setting  for  the  Pearl  of  great  price. 

6.  Pictorial  Teaching. — There  is  great  power  in 
a  neat  and  graphic  word-picture.  It  should  enter  more  or 
less  into  all  our  teaching.  The  picture  should  be  vivid, 
brief  and  sprightly,  and  should  embody  facts  unknown  or 
imperfectly  understood  by  the  class. 

Take,  for  example,  the  lesson  in  Matt.  ii.  1-19  :  "  The  child 
Jesus."  After  questioning  the  class  on  such  points  in  the 
lesson  as  Bethlehem,  Herod,  the  prophecy  concerning  the 
birth  of  the  Messiah  and  the  visit  of  the  wise  men,  de- 
scribe briefly  and  forcibly  these  wise  men  of  the  East — how 
the  magi  of  the  Greeks,  as  mentioned  by  Matthew,  were 
entirely  different  and  distinct  from  the  magi  of  the  Ro- 
mans, as  described  by  Luke.  They  were  originally  from  the 
far,  far  East,  from  beyond  the  Tigris,  hundreds  of  leagues 
away,  and  latterly  native  to  Babylonia.  They  were  rich 
and  good  and  learned.     They  in  the  early  ceniuries  were 


now  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  359 

acquainted  with  astrology,  and  this  was  the  parent  of  the 
science  of  astronomy.  They  belonged  to  the  royal  line,  and 
their  order  ran  back  to  the  days  of  the  prophet  Daniel,  who 
in  his  time  was  '*  chief  of  the  magicians,"  and  the  men  now 
on  a  long  and  weary  pilgrimage  to  do  homage  at  the  cradle 
of  the  infant  Jesus  perhaps  derived  their  knowledge  of  his 
coming  from  the  sacred  books  left  by  Daniel  in  the  capital 
of  their  far-off  country. 

7.  Teach  the  exact  Lesson. — The  true  teacher  should 
be  animated  by  a  single  purpose.  He  should  aim  to  teach, 
as  God  shall  give  strength  and  grace,  the  appointed  lesson 
of  the  day,  and  not  some  other,  however  good.  It  may  suit 
the  fancy  of  the  hour  or  be  deemed  easier  to  teach  some- 
thing else,  to  allow  one's  self  to  be  diverted  into  some  other 
train  of  thought,  to  indulge  in  pious  harangue  or  cheap 
exhortation  on  some  topic  suggested  at  the  moment.  But 
such  so-called  teaching  is  subversive  of  good  order,  of  the 
unity  of  thought  and  purpose  that  should  obtain  in  every 
well-ordered  school,  is  demoralizing  to  the  teacher,  and  usu- 
ally sooner  or  later  brings  him  into  contempt  with  the 
class.  No  teaching  is  so  effective  as  that  which  comes  spon- 
taneously out  of  the  lesson  or  text  itself,  and  none  so  likely 
to  prove  abortive  as  discursive  talk  and  what  seems  like 
preaching  on  unfit  occasions. 

We  are  often  impressed  most  deeply  when  we  are  least 
conscious  of  the  process  by  which  we  are  affected.  Nathan 
luid  a  solemn  and  direct  message  to  David,  yet  he  presented 
it  most  effectivel}"^  by  draping  it  in  a  story  through  which 
the  king  was  made  to  condemn  himself  most  emphatically 
an<l  severely.  The  lesson  came  spontaneously  out  of  the  truth 
presented  in  the  illustration,  and  thus  the  way  was  prepared 
for  a  most  pointed  application.  "Thou  art  the  man  "  came 
home  to  the  king's  conscience  with  resistless  power  after  his 
self-condemnation  had  come  spontaneously  from  the  truth 
so  skillfully  yet  indirectly  presented  by  the  prophet. 


360  PREPARING  TO   TEACH. 

We  should  aim  to  reach  the  heart  and  conscience  most 
certainly  and  by  all  means  possible.  But  let  us  remember 
that  the  truth  is  the  only  sword  of  the  Spirit.  Let  us 
search  prayerfully  for  its  edge  and  point,  its  personal  bear- 
ing and  import.  Then  will  our  teaching  commend  itself  to 
the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  scholar. 

8.  Teach  Something  Well. — There  may  be  danger,  in 
the  multiplicity  of  helps  and  lesson  notes,  of  relying  too 
much  upon  them,  of  hasty  and  crude  preparation,  of  teach- 
ing a  great  deal  superficially — nothing  well.  A  single  point 
thoroughly  taught,  illustrated,  fastened  in  the  memory,  is 
much  better  than  a  whole  lesson  vaguely  and  superficially 
gone  over.  No  teacher  should  rest  satisfied  with  a  given 
lesson  till  at  least  some  portion  of  it  is  thoroughly  known 
and  comprehended  by  each  pupil  in  the  class. 

9.  Illustrative  Teaching, — Great  value  should  be  at- 
tached to  this  method.  Illustrations,  if  well  chosen  and 
judiciously  used,  serve  the  double  purpose  of  making  the 
truth  clear  and  of  fastening  it  in  the  mind.  A  teacher  is 
but  poorly  equipped  who  does  not  pay  special  attention  to 
the  gathering  and  study  of  apt  and  pertinent  illustrations 
of  the  truths  he  attempts  to  teach.  See  lesson  on  the  "  Power 
and  Method  of  Illustration." 

10.  Avoid  Lecturing. — Preaching  or  lecturing  is  most 
excellent  in  its  place.  The  preacher's  ofiice  and  functions 
are  divinely  appointed.  But  preaching  in  its  ordinary  ex- 
ercise is  not  always  teaching  in  its  best  sense.  The  two  are 
entirely  distinct  and  dissimilar.  The  preacher's  distinctive 
office,  according  to  modern  usage,  is  to  move  men's  hearts  by 
the  presentation  of  the  living  word  in  the  popular  assem- 
bly. The  teacher's  special  mission  is  to  bring  the  truth  into 
personal,  familiar  contact  with  the  class,  so  that  it  may  be 
seen  and  felt  by  each  individual  soul. 

While  some  few  do  good  work  in  lecturing  classes  on  the 
Bible  lesson,  the  practice  cannot  be  recommended  for  aver- 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  361 

age  teachers.  With  most  it  must  prove  a  wretched  failure,  for 
sooner  or  later  it  degenerates  into  driveling  verbiage  and 
pointless  exhortation.  Besides,  a  teacher  may  lecture  for  an 
hour,  and  yet  not  be  certain  that  a  single  item  of  know- 
ledge has  been  imparted  or  impression  fastened. 

11.  The  Catechetical  Method. — No  better  method  of 
teaching  is  as  yet  known  than  that  of  question  and  answer. 
It  awakens  curiosity,  stimulates  thought,  tests  knowledge, 
and  impresses  the  memory  by  the  expectation  of  being 
tested  and  by  the  mental  effort  of  expressing  the  acquired 
knowledge  in  the  pupil's  own  language. 

Moreover,  it  is  the  method  most  easily  available.  While 
very  few  can  hope  to  attain  excellence  in  lecturing,  ordi- 
nary minds  can  learn  to  go  good  work  with  the  catechetical 
method. 

We  cannot  too  much  insist  on  attention  to  this  matter 
on  the  part  of  all  who  would  perfect  themselves  as  teachers. 
It  is  the  mode  in  universal  use  in  all  good  secular  schools. 
It  has  the  highest  possible  sanction.  It  was  largely  practiced 
by  the  great  Teacher  himself. 

12.  Bring  out  the  Spiritual  Import. — While  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  time  must  be  given  to  history  and  chronol- 
ogy, to  seemingly  unimportant  themes,  great  care  should  be 
had  that  the  vital  truths  and  their  personal  application  be 
not  crowded  out.  Minor  truths  are  pu^e  gold,  but  they  are 
only  the  setting.  Let  them  serve  only  to  bring  out  the 
precious  gem  of  spiritual  and  heaveuly  beauty.  The  subor- 
dinate portions  of  the  lesson  may  be  full  of  instruction,  but 
let  us  ever  inquire  earnestly  how  they  may  illustrate  Christ 
and  salvation. 

13.  Teach  Jesus  Only. — We  may  find  in  every  lesson 
truths  pointing  directly  to  the  cross.  Christ  is  the  central 
figure  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments — of  all  truth,  human 
and  divine. 

Whether   it  be   the  Christ  ot    prophecy  or   of  history, 


362  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

•'  there  is  none  other  name  given  under  heaven  among  men 
"whereby  we  must  be  saved." 

The  venerable  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander,  for  sixty  years 
a  distinguished  preacher  and  for  forty  years  a  professor  of 
divinity,  was  heard  to  say  on  his  death-bed,  "All  my  theology 
is  reduced  to  this  narrow  compass:  'Jesus  Christ  came  into 
the  world  to  save  sinners.'  " 

Christ  and  his  cross  should  be  the  central  thought  deeply 
underlying  all  our  teaching.  Our  fallen  state  and  salvation 
by  atoning  blood  should  enter  into  every  lesson. 

14.  Application, — It  is  not  wise  to  leave  the  practical 
lessons  to  be  derived  from  the  truth  taught  till  the  close  of 
the  hour.  They  will  be  in  danger  of  being  crowded  out 
altogether.  It  is  better  to  make  the  application  on  all  fit 
opportunities  during  the  progress  of  the  lesson.  In  prep- 
aration and  in  teaching  our  uppermost  thought  should  be, 
What  in  this  lesson  can  I  find  with  which  to  reach,  impress 
and  save  my  pupils  ? 

While  the  practical  should  not  be  overlooked,  there  may 
be  danger  of  overmuch  application.  Like  too  big  a  sinker 
on  the  fishing-line,  it  may  swamp  the  whole  lesson.  While 
great  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  faithful  and  wise 
presentation  of  the  truth  in  the  class,  we  should  remember 
that  this  is  by  no  means  the  whole  of  effective  teaching. 

We  should  seek  frequent  opportunities  to  speak  to  each 
scholar  by  himself  alone,  to  visit  at  his  home,  and,  above 
and  over  all,  we  should  exemplify  the  truth  by  our  lives. 
We  teach  not  alone  by  our  words  in  the  class,  but  by  our 
manner  and  spirit;  by  what  we  do  more  than  by  what  we 
say  ;  by  what  we  are  more  than  by  what  we  profess. 

Lastly,  Observe  What  is  the  True  Conception  op 
Teaching. — Let  us  ever  remember  that  true  teaching  con- 
sists not  alone  in  pouring  knowledge  into  pupils'  minds  as 
into  an  open  vessel.  Imparting  instruction  is  indeed  a  part 
of  the  teacher's  work,  but  his  higher  and  more  important 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  363 

duty  consists  in  awakening  thought,  in  arousing  the  more 
or  less  dormant  desire  for  knowledge  of  spiritual  things,  in 
stimulating  and  helping  the  pupil  in  the  pursuit,  in  quick- 
ening the  conscience  and  in  reaching  the  heart. 

In  concluding  this  subject,  let  us  note  a  few  of  the  more 

Common  Errors  in  Teaching. 

Teachers  should  carefully  study  to  avoid — 

1.  Attempting  to  teach  without  careful  and  prayerful 
preparation. 

2.  Taking  lesson  notes  into  the  class.  Study  them,  as 
well  as  the  text  of  the  lesson,  at  home  never  so  faithfully, 
but  do  not  take  them  into  the  class. 

3.  The  routine  use  of  printed  questions.  These  are  de- 
signed to  be  suggestive  and  helpful,  not  to  be  slavishly 
followed. 

4.  Taking  things  for  granted.  Be  sure  that  the  pupil 
clearly  sees  what  is  taught.  This  must  be  tested  by  re- 
peated questions. 

5.  The  common  neglect  of  memorizing  the  Scriptures  on 
the  part  of  teachers  and  scholars. 

6.  The  failure  carefullv  to  cultivate  the  art  of  communi- 
eating  knowledge. 

7.  The  common  yet  fatal  neglect  to  commend  and  en- 
courage pupils  w'heu  they  do  well. 

8.  The  failure  to  give  expression  to  the  love  and  interest 
you  really  feel. 

9.  Impatience  in  word  or  manner. 

10.  Above  all  should  we  avoid  the  all  too  common 
neglect  to  aim  at  direct  and  immediate  spiritual  impres- 
sions. 


364  FBEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

LESSOM  riL 
HOW  TO  WIN  AND  HOLD  ATTENTION. 

In  considering  this  subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  re 
member  that  strict  and  undivided  attention  is  not  an  easy 
thing  to  give  even  on  the  part  of  adults. 

It  often  requires  a  strong  effort  of  the  will  to  fix  the 
mind  continuously  on  any  given  subject,  though  it  may  be 
of  intrinsic  interest.  How  often  do  we  lose  a  word  or  sen- 
tence of  a  speaker,  or  find  our  eyes  listlessly  and  mechanic- 
ally following  the  printed  page !  How  often  are  we  obliged 
to  summon  our  drowsy  energies  and  arouse  all  our  will- 
power in  order  to  bring  back  and  fix  our  wandering 
thoughts !  On  the  part  of  children  it  is  harder  still. 
Their  blood  flows  in  more  rapid  channels.  They  abound 
in  animal  life.  Change  and  restlessness  and  motion  are  its 
legitimate  expression.  They  are  extremely  susceptible  to 
outward  impressions  and  surroundings.  They  are  creatures 
of  impulse  and  circumstance.  Childhood  and  youth  is  the 
formative  period,  the  season  of  sensation  and  emotion 
rather  than  of  reason  and  fixedness  of  thought  and  pur- 
pose. 

Appreciating  the  real  difficulties  of  the  case,  we  shall  be 
better  prepared  to  meet  and  overcome  them. 

I.  The  Necessity  of  Attention. 

Though  strict  attention  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  give,  it  is 
not  too  much  to  ask.  It  is  absolutely  essential  to  any  con- 
siderable success  in  teaching.  It  is  idle  to  attempt  to  teach 
amid  disorder  and  turbulence.  If  boys  are  tossing  hats 
or  climbing  benches  or  slyly  teasing  each  other,  if  girls 
are  whispering  or  making  fun  in  the  class  or  gossiping 
about  bonnets  and  ribbons  and  fashion,  the  teacher's  eflfbrts 
are  of  little  avail.  The  truth  must  be  heard  and  attended 
to  in  order  to  be  effective. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  365 

Note,  1.  Attention  must  be  Won. — It  is  idle  to  expect 
attention  simply  because  it  is  desired  or  commanded.  The 
power  of  giving  attention  on  the  part  of  young  children  is 
i»jt  largely  under  the  control  of  the  will.  It  must  depenci, 
to  a  great  extent,  on  the  interest  felt.  The  remedy,  then,  for 
restlessness  and  inattention  is  not  scolding  or  entreaty  or 
command,  but  the  presentation  of  what  will  attract  and 
interest.  It  is  not  difficult  to  engage  the  attention  and  in- 
terest of  a  group  of  young  people  in  stories  or  tableaux  or 
games  of  ball  or  croquet.  Attention  in  the  class  must,  in 
the  main,  be  gained  by  so  presenting  the  subject  taught  as 
to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  pupil. 

2.  External  Surroundings  are  Important. — Regard 
to  bodily  comfort  should  not  be  overlooked.  In  training 
the  moral  and  intellectual  it  is  not  safe  or  wise  to  ignore 
the  physical  nature.  Bodily  discomfort  is  often  inseparable 
from  listlessness  and  inattention.  Light,  pleasant  rooms, 
cheerful  arrangement,  comfortable  seats  and  good  ventila- 
tion go  a  great  way  in  the  right  direction.  Youthful  errors 
are  often  set  down  to  the  account  of  total  depravity  when  in 
a  large  measure  they  should  be  charged  to  parental  folly  or 
neglect.  So  restlessness  and  turbulence  in  schools  are  some- 
times more  the  fault  of  cheerless  rooms,  bad  ventilation 
and  hard,  uncomfortable  seats  than  of  either  teachers  or 
scholars. 

3.  Change  of  Posture. — Fixed  position  soon  becomes 
painful  even  to  grown  persons.  No  school  should  be  kept 
long  in  dny  one  fixed  position.  This  is  especially  important 
with  classes  of  young  children.  Sitting  bolt  upright  on 
hard,  high  seats,  with  dangling  feet,  for  a  long  time,  is  sim- 
ply torture  to  little  children. 

II.  How  TO  Win  Attention. 

1.  By  Quiet  Determination. — While  it  is  of  no  use 
to  expect  attention  simply  because  it  is  wanted  or  demanded, 

31* 


366  PBEPABINQ   TO   TEACH, 

and  irrespective  of  the  quality  of  the  teaching,  very  much 
is  gained  by  a  determined  will.  The  boy  who  has  greatest 
force  of  will-power  is  leader  among  his  comrades.  The  man 
of  indomitable  and  persistent  determination  is,  in  the  long 
run,  the  successful  man.  Firm,  persistent  will-power,  a 
quiet  determination  to  have  attention,  is  a  most  decided 
help  to  a  teacher  in  winning  and  holding  it. 

2.  By  A  QUICK  Eye  and  Ear. — Your  pupils  are  quick 
in  perception  and  movement,  sometimes  sly  and  secretive. 
A  teacher  who  is  quick  to  see  and  hear  and  prompt  to  ar- 
rest incipient  disorder  has  a  most  decided  advantage. 
Some  teachers  seem  not  to  see  inattention,  or  hear  the  noise 
of  disturbance  till  it  runs  into  riot  and  turbulence. 

An  educated  eye,  ready  tact  and  prompt  action  will  do 
most  effective  service  in  nipping  the  evil  in  the  bud. 

3.  By  Simple  Devices. — A  little  ingenuity  will  often 
secure  the  object  sought.  A  few  simple,  easy  questions  ad- 
dressed to  each  member  of  the  class  in  rapid  succession  of- 
ten answers  a  good  purpose.  A  brief,  apt  story  is  sometimes 
useful  in  arresting  such  as  are  not  easily  reached.  These 
should,  however,  be  held  in  reserve,  used  with  care,  and 
generally  only  in  emergencies. 

Better  still,  and  more  easily  utilized,  is  a  note-book  or 
slate.  Rough  maps  or  diagrams  can  be  readily  and  quick- 
ly sketched  in  illustration  of  geographical  or  other  points 
of  the  lesson.  These  will  often  excite  curiosity  and  arrest 
attention  at  once.  Curiosity  is  said  to  be  the  parent  of  at- 
tention. It  is  readily  excited  by  simple  devices.  Once 
excited,  it  is  not  difficult  to  awaken  an  eager  interest  in 
the  lesson  itself. 

A  young  teacher  of  our  acquaintance  was  once  placed 
in  charge  of  a  large  class  of  undisciplined  mission  boys. 
They  were  bright  and  intelligent,  but  wild  and  thoughtless, 
and  somewhat  demoralized  by  unfortunate  teaching.  The 
new  teacher  found  it  very  difficult  to  hold  them  even  for  a 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  367 

moment.  The  lesson  on  a  certain  Sunday  chanced  to  be 
"  Moses'  choice."  Its  keynote  was  embodied  in  these 
words  :  "  Choosing  rather  to  suffer  affliction  with  the  peo- 
ple of  God  than  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  sin  for  a  season." 
The  note-book  was  taken  out,  and  the  teacher  quickly  yet 
roughly  sketched  a  pair  of  scales.  Moses  was  thus  repre- 
sented as  balancing  the  matter  in  his  mind.  He  put  in  the 
one  scale  riches,  honor,  position — maybe  a  kingship,  all 
that  a  son  of  royalty  in  that  proud  empire  could  inherit  or 
a  Pharaoh  could  bestow ;  in  the  other,  poverty,  oppression, 
toil,  perhaps  continual  bondage,  with  the  favor  of  God  and 
consciousness  of  rectitude.  The  last  was  shown  in  Moses' 
estimation  far  to  outweigh  the  other. 

It  was  a  simple  device,  but  it  proved  effectual  in  winning 
the  attention  of  those  boys  when  other  means  had  failed. 
It  proved  the  key  which  unlocked  the  secret  of  very  great 
success  in  teaching. 

4.  By  Avoiding  Monotony. — Stereotyped  methods,  do- 
ing always  the  same  thing  and  in  the  same  order,  is  apt  to 
be  distasteful  to  young  people.  Variety  always  adds  spice 
and  zest.  So  it  is  not  best  always  first  to  hear  the  recita- 
tion of  the  boy  at  your  right,  or  to  question  the  class  uni- 
formly in  the  same  order  and  in  the  same  monotonous 
tone  of  voice.  A  little  thought  and  ingenuity  will  enable 
the  wise  teacher  to  avoid  a  certain  dull  routine  which  is 
always  more  or  less  disrelished. 

III.  How  TO  Hold  Attention. 

1.  By  Exciting  Genuine  Interest. — We  cannot  rea- 
sonably expect  to  hold  pupils  without  thoroughly  interesting 
them.  Real  and  continued  interest  must  have  some  sub- 
stantial basis.  If  the  teacher  would  obtain  a  strong  hold 
upon  his  class,  he  must  be  thoroughly  interested  himself. 
If  the  teacher  is  full  of  enthusiasm,  the  pupil  will  catch 
the  contagion.     If  we  wish  to  raise  wheat,  we  sc  w  wheat. 


368  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

If  we  wish  a  crop  of  corn,  we  plant,  not  rye  or  oats,  but 
maize.  If  we  wish  to  instill  enthusiasm  into  the  minds  of 
our  scholars,  we  must  get  full  of  it  oursel\»3S.  Men  do  not 
gather  grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  of  thistles.  Like  produces 
like,  the  world  over.  In  order  to  be  enthusiastic  and 
highly  interesting  on  any  given  subject,  one  must  be  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  it — not  only  with  its  outlines,  but  with 
its  details  and  collateral  topics. 

In  this  connection,  allow  us  again  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance and  necessity  of  the  most  thorough  preparation. 
If  the  teacher  would  be  sure  most  fully  to  win  and  hold  atten- 
tion, he  should  study  his  subject  from  all  points.  He  should 
look  into  it  and  all  around  it,  and  be  able  to  select  from  the 
■whole  range  of  his  knowledge  the  parts  most  interesting 
and  profitable  to  the  particular  class  taught. 

In  short,  other  things  being  equal,  that  teacher  will,  by 
the  blessing  of  God,  best  interest  and  hold  his  scholars  who 
is  most  thoroughly  familiar  with  his  subject. 

2.  By  Adaptation. — A  class  of  little  children  require  a 
style  of  teaching  differing  essentially  from  a  class  just  com- 
ing into  stove-pipe  hats  and  long  coats.  Mission  scholars 
need  treatment  that  differs  widely  from  that  which  would 
be  adapted  to  the  children  of  educated,  religious  families. 

Such  topics  of  the  lesson  should  be  taken  qsod  such  a 
style  of  teaching  chosen,  as  are  most  likely  to  interest  the 
particular  class  taught. 

Attention  to  points  like  the  following  may  often  aid 
in  holding  the  flagging  interest  of  restless  scholars : 

If  the  lesson  is  a  narrative,  take  up  the  story  somewhat 
in  detail.  Bring  out  as  graphically  as  possible  its  features 
of  beauty  and  interest.  Have  the  pupils  turn  to  other 
parallel  or  analogous  narratives.  Call  attention  to  points 
of  difference  or  resemblance. 

If  the  lesson  is  historical,  study  up  this  phase  of  the 
subject  and  emphasize  the  items  of  interest. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  369 

If  geographical,  elicit  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
Draw  outline  maps  and  diagrams.  Get  pupils  to  locate  the 
different  places  mentioned  in  this  and  preceding  lessons. 
Bring  out  incidents  connected  with  them.  Recall  charac- 
ters in  Bible  history  that  may  be  associated  with  the  differ- 
ent localities,  not  forgetting  to  lead  on  naturally  but  surely 
to  the  spiritual  bearing  and  significance  of  the  truth 
taught. 

Slate  and  note-book  have  already  been  alluded  to  as  a 
wise  means  of  arresting  attention.  If  judiciously  used,  this 
method  of  illustration  may  be  made  a  valuable  means  of 
permanent  and  continued  interest. 

3.  By  Frequent  Recapitulation. — Frequent  going 
over  and  recalling  what  has  been  taught  is  an  essential 
element  of  good  teaching.  It  is  also  a  valuable  means  of 
holding  attention.  If  pupils  are  led  to  expect  that  their 
knowledge  of  what  has  been  taught  will  be  regularly  tested, 
this  very  fact  will  tend  strongly  to  ensure  a  certain  amount 
of  attention.  Besides,  an  idea  fairly  grasped  and  clearly 
understood  is  a  source  of  pleasure,  and  consequent  interest. 
Young  people  relish  very  keenly  the  clear  grasping  of  a 
new  idea.  Very  few  adults  pursue  knowledge  for  its  own 
sake  alone.  The  idea  of  utility  is  uppermost.  Hence  we 
give  the  closest  attention  to  that  which  we  expect  in  some 
way  to  use.  We  pay  the  best  attention  to  the  acquisition 
of  that  knowledge  which  we  expect  to  have  tested.  The 
candidate  for  college  masters  the  studies  on  which  he  ex- 
pects to  be  examined,  the  artisan,  subjects  which  relate  to 
iiis  work,  the  public  speaker,  that  which  will  be  brought 
into  requisition  in  public  address.  So  our  pupils  will  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  attending  to  the  lesson  in  hand  if  they 
expect  regular  examination  upon  it. 

4.  By  Judicious  Questioning. — Questions  put  in  a 
clear,  vivacious,  sprightly  manner,  avoiding  vagueness  and 
regular  rotation,  constitute  an  admirable  way  of  holding 


370  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

scholars  who  ai'e  inclined  to  be  restive.  A  question  rightly 
adapted  and  unexpectedly  put  to  a  listless  scholar  will  of- 
ten arouse  anew  his  flagging  interest  as  well  as  stimulate 
the  whole  class. 

5.  By  Pictorial  Teaching. — A  class  is  often  greatly 
interested  by  throwing  in  an  occasional  brief  word-picture. 
In  order  to  do  this  successfully,  get  the  subject  vividly  be- 
fore the  mind.  Recall  the  little  details  and  some  of  the 
probable  incidents  not  mentioned  in  the  text.  Give  such 
study  to  the  matter  as  to  be  able  to  picture  it  so  graphically 
that  your  pupils  will  see  the  whole  scene  distinctly  with  the 
mind's  eye.  Three  to  five  minutes  of  occasional  pictorial 
teaching  of  this  kind  will  prove  interesting  and  profitable. 
Care  should  be  exercised,  however,  that  too  much  time  is 
not  taken  from  the  more  important  method  of  catechetical 
instruction. 

6.  By  Teaching  Scholars  how  to  Study. — It  is  im- 
portant to  aid  pupils  to  some  extent  in  the  preparation  of 
their  lessons.  Teach  them  how  to  help  themselves.  Study 
may  thus  be  made  a  continual  delight.  Seek  so  to  in- 
spire and  help  them  that  they  shall  love  to  master  their 
lessons. 

Suppose  the  lesson  for  the  coming  Sabbath  to  be  ''  the 
flight  into  Egypt."  Ask  John  to  bring  some  written  ques- 
tions and  his  own  answers  about  the  journey.  Ask  Frank 
to  learn  all  he  can  about  the  kings  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of 
Jacob  and  Joseph,  and  also  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
birth,  James  to  bring  a  rough  map  of  the  journey  and 
Peter  a  summary  of  the  last  lesson. 

Treat  these  eflbrts  generously.  Make  as  much  as  possible 
of  them.  Approve  all  appreciable  points  of  excellence, 
and  little  by  little  you  will  have  infused  into  your  pupils  a 
love  for  study  as  well  as  some  knowledge  of  how  to  do  it. 

7.  By  Winning  Love. — Teach  never  so  well,  exhaust 
time  and  resources  in  preparation  and  ingenuity,  in  devices 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  371 

and  methods,  you  will  yet  come  short  of  high  success  if 
you  fail  to  win  love  and  confidence.  If  the  scholar  feels 
and  knows  you  to  be  a  real  friend,  if  he  has  confidence  to 
go  to  you  in  trouble,  in  trial  and  temptation,  if  you  have 
so  won  regard  as  to  be  able  to  guide  and  influence  for 
good,  with  diligence  and  fidelity,  by  the  Master's  blessing, 
you  will  have  little  difficulty  to  win  and  hold  and  lead  to  a 
new  and  better  life.  The  teacher  who  is  fully  worthy  of 
respect  and  love  will  be  tolerably  sure,  in  the  long  run,  to 
reach  the  hearts  of  his  scholars. 

It  may  be  well,  in  conclusion,  to  call  attention  to  the  fol- 
lowing maxims,  deduced,  in  part,  from  what  has  preceded : 

1.  Attention  is  an  act  of  the  will.  It  is  born  of  respect 
and  love  rather  than  of  mere  discipline. 

2.  It  is  a  habit,  and  one  of  most  potential  influence,  and 
a  matter  of  cultivation. 

3.  Teachers  have  much  to  do  with  forming  and  develop- 
ing the  habit  in  their  pupils. 

4.  It  is  won  and  held  largely  by  thorough  preparation,  by 
firmness  and  patience,  by  a  kind  and  affectionate  manner, 
rather  than  by  a  multiplication  of  rules  and  a  great  show 
of  authority. 


LESSOM  nil. 

THE  PLACE  AND  MANNER  OF  QUESTIONING. 

The  right  method  of  questioning  is  an  art  which  has  an 
important  relation  to  all  good  teaching.  Like  all  other 
arts,  it  is  well  learned  only  by  practice.  Yet  there  are  cer- 
tain underlying  principles  which  should  receive  careful  at- 
tention. There  are  certain  substantial  reasons  why  one  way 
of  asking  questions  is  better  than  another.  It  is  well  worth 
the    Sunday-school    teacher's    while    to   inquire   how   best 


S72  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

to  conduct   this  method  of  teaching,  and  why  one  mode 
is  to  be  preferred  above  another. 

I.  The  Place  of  Questioning. 

The  Socratic  or  catechetical  mode  of  teaching  is  in  al- 
most universal  use  among  the  best  secular  teachers.  It  will 
be  ever  likely  to  enfeer  largely  into  all  good  methods  of 
teaching.  It  should  take  precedence  in  Sunday-school  in- 
struction. A  distinguished  professor  was  once  heard  to 
remark  that  he  had  measurably  lost  many  years  of  his 
teaching  life  through  inattention  to  and  neglect  of  the  art 
of  questioning.  An  eminent  Brooklyn  preacher  is  in  the 
habit  of  carefully  writing  out  a  series  of  questions  on  his 
subject  before  preparing  his  sermon.  After  the  sermon  is 
prepared  he  compares  it  with  the  questions,  in  order  to  be 
sure  that  he  is  bringing  out  the  salient  points. 

We  notice  that  this  method  of  teaching  is  specially  use- 
ful— 

1.  In  Gaining  Attention. — We  spoke  of  it  in  the  last 
chapter  as  a  device  to  check  restlessness  and  arrest  flagging 
interest-  Judiciously  employed,  it  has  more  substantial 
uses.  One  may  state  a  truth  never  so  clearly  and  fluently, 
and  yet  the  scholar  may  be  inappreciative  and  wandering. 
Put  to  him  a  direct  question,  and  his  attention  is  enlisted 
by  an  almost  involuntary  effort  to  attempt  the  answer.  The 
more  apt  and  pertinent  the  question,  the  more  perfect  the 
success. 

2.  It  Elicits  Thought. — A  pertinent  question  stim- 
ulates mental  activity.  The  mind  becomes  curious  and  alert 
by  the  mere  effort  to  understand  and  answer.  A  correct 
answer,  or  one  that  is  nearly  so,  arouses  still  further  the 
mental  processes,  and  in  the  class  pupils  react  on  each 
other  by  a  certain  subtle  inspiration  which  one  mind,  even 
partially  aroused,  imparts  to  another. 

Example. — Suppose  the  teacher  states  to  the  pupil  that 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  373 

Jesus  went  at  the  age  of  thirty  to  the  river  Jordan  ;  that  he 
was  there  baptized  by  John  in  Jordan ;  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
descended  like  a  dove  upon  him,  and  a  voice  was  heard 
afiirmino^  that  he  was  the  Son  of  God.  You  are  bv  no 
means  sure  that  the  scholai  has  received  a  correct  idea  of  the 
facts  presented,  or  that  he  has  really  grasped  any  correct 
idea  of  the  subject.  But  suppose  the  following  questions 
are  asked  in  quick  succession:  Who  went  to  the  river  Jor- 
dan? For  what  purpose?  By  whom  was  Jesus  baptized? 
In  what  river?  What  remarkable  thing  happened  as  he 
came  from  the  water  ?  What  voice  was  heard?  Whence 
did  it  come?  If  these  or  similar  questions  are  answered 
correctly,  you  may  be  tolerably  certain  that  the  pupil  has 
some  correct  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  that  the  pupil's 
mental  activities  have  been  to  some  extent  stimulated. 

3.  It  Fastens  Truth  in  the  Memory. — Trutli  may  be 
clearly  stated  and  apparently  apprehended  ;  the  pupil  may 
assent  to  each  proposition  and  claim  fully  to  understand 
the  whole  subject;  but  if  his  idea  or  understanding  of 
each  particular  point  is  expressed  in  his  own  language  in 
answer  to  questions,  it  is  certain  to  be  more  fully  understood 
and  reme>nbered.  The  mere  effort  which  the  mind  puts 
forth  to  put  one's  knowledge  into  words  helps  materially  to 
fasten  it  in  the  memory.  Some  educators  go  so  far  as  to 
claim  that  a  proposition  is  never  clearly  known  till  it  has 
found  expression  in  the  pupil's  own  language  verbally  or  in 
writing.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  mental  effort  re- 
quired to  frame  one's  ideas  of  a  given  subject  in  words 
helps  very  materially  in  fastening  that  subject  in  mind  as 
well  as  in  more  fuUv  understandino-  it, 

4.  It  is  Adapted  to  Average  Teachers. — The  lectur- 
ing or  talking  method  of  teaching,  or  that  in  which  the 
teacher  simply  expounds  the  lesson  or  makes  a  running 
commentary  upon  it,  is  undoubtedly  sometimes  successful 
on  the   part  of  a  few  gifted  teachers.     But  this  mode  ia 

32 


374  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

hazardous  and  uncertain.  It  is  an  endeavor  to  pour  know- 
ledge into  the  pupil's  mind  rather  than  a  wise  effort  to 
stimulate  and  aid  him  in  gaining  knowledge  for  himself. 
Besides,  a  half  hour's  weekly  lecture,  to  be  interesting,  in- 
structive and  profitable,  involves  mental  furnishing  and 
study  vastly  beyond  the  reach  of  ordinary  minds.  On  the 
other  hand,  tolerable  proficiency  in  the  questioning  method 
is  within  the  grasp  of  ordinary  teachers.  Moreover,  lectur- 
ing, however  admirable,  is  not  teaching  in  its  true  technical 

sense. 

II.  The  Mode  of  Questioning. 

In  pursuing  this  subject  it  will  be  well  to  keep  in  mind 
a  few  general  principles. 

We  should  study  to  use  as  the  base  or  groundwork  of 
our  questions — 

1.  The  Pupil's  Actual  Knowledge. — The  foundation 
of  true  teaching  must  usually  be  what  the  pupil  already 
knows.  From  actual  knowledge  the  wise  teacher  will  lead 
naturally  and  logically  on  to  what  he  knows  imperfectly  or 
not  at  all.  Suppose  you  wish  to  explain  the  nature  and 
uses  of  the  telegraph.  The  pupil  has  seen  the  poles  and 
wires,  and  has  some  crude  and  imperfect  notions  concern- 
ing the  subject. 

We  remember  once  to  have  heard  of  a  countryman  who 
fancied  that  telegraphic  messages  were  sent  by  miniature 
3oaches  over  the  wires.  So,  having  a  message  to  send,  he 
handed  it  to  the  operator,  and  sat  down  to  see  him  start  the 
2oach.  He  was,  however,  summarily  corrected  by  his  wife, 
who  told  him  that  the  letter  was  not  sent  at  all — nothing  but 
the  writing. 

A  pupil  of  this  sort  would  have  but  few  correct  notions, 
but  there  would  remain  in  almost  any  case  some  actual 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  With  such  a  one  the  teacher 
will  commence,  not  by  asking  about  the  battery  and 
the  electric  current,  but  will  proceed  to  sound  his  actual 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  875 

knowledge  by  asking  about  the  poles  and  wires,  and  about 
the  fact  that  messages  are  somehow  swiftly  transmitted. 
Little  by  little  he  will  be  led  on  to  the  unknown  and  del- 
icate processes  by  which  the  subtle  unseen  electric  current 
is  made  with  the  speed  of  light  to  transmit  our  thoughts 
over  the  continent  and  under  the  sea. 

We  should  study  carefully — 

2.  To  Link  the  Known  to  what  we  Teach. — De- 
tached knowledge  is  of  little  value.  But  if  you  connect  it 
naturally  with  what  is  taught,  you  make  it  available  and  l)y 
law  of  association  fasten  both  in  the  memory. 

Example. — Suppose  you  describe  to  a  child  a  little  hamlet 
on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware.  Very  likely  he  will  feel 
little  or  no  interest  in  the  matter.  Proceed  to  question  him 
on  his  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  country.  Perhaps 
he  will  remember  that  Washington  crossed  the  Delaware 
with  his  army  during  the  dark  days  of  the  Revolution. 
Question  him  further,  and  you  may  find  that  he  remembers 
his  grandsire  fought  with  Washington.  Attention  will  be 
by  this  time  arrested  and  interest  fully  aroused.  If  you 
now  tell  the  pupil  that  this  hamlet  marks  the  spot  where 
W^ashington  crossed,  and  that  his  grandsire  was  one  of  that 
immortal  army,  you  will  have  supplied  the  links  that  con- 
nect the  known  to  what  you  have  taught,  and  you  have 
fastened  both  indelibly  in  the  mind. 

III.  Classification. 

Questions  are  classified  by  Fitch  substantially  as 
follows:  1.  Introductory  or  Preliminary.  2.  Instructive. 
3.  Review  or  Test  Questions. 

To  the  first  named  belong  questions  of  general  review 
by  which  the  previous  lesson  is  recalled.  Also  questions  by 
which  the  teacher  approaches  the  pupil  and  sc.unds  his  actual 
knowledge.  Also  such  as  relate  to  the  writer  or  speaker  or 
actors  in  the  lesson,  and  to  time,  place  and  occasion. 


376  PBEPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

To  the  second  beloug  such  questions  as  stimulate  the 
thought  and  lead  on  to  the  discovery  of  new  truth,  ^connect- 
ing it  in  logical  order  with  what  is  previously  known. 

To  the  third  belong  those  which  test  the  work  that  has 
been  done,  which  call  back  in  the  pupil's  own  language 
what  has  been  learned  and  recapitulate  the  whole. 

While  it  is  important  to  note  this  classification,  it  is  not 
best  rigidly  to  adhere  to  it  in  the  order  named.  The  differ- 
ent kinds  of  questions  will  in  practice  be  interspersed  through 
the  various  stages  of  the  lesson  at  the  teacher's  discretion. 
It  is  important  to  inject  questions  of  personal  application 
and  review  as  the  lesson  proceeds,  lest  these  most  important 
parts  be  crowded  out. 

Negatively,  1.  We  should  as  far  as  possible  avoid 
vague,  indefinite  questions.  The  teacher  should  have  the 
idea  he  wishes  to  bring  out  very  distinctly  in  his  own  mind, 
and  the  question  should  be  so  stated  that  the  pupil  can  see 
clearly  what  is  intended. 

This  point  should  receive  our  most  careful  and  studious 
attention.  While  random  questions  and  such  as  admit  of  a 
variety  of  answers  are  by  no  means  difficult,  it  is  not  so 
easy  to  frame  questions  which  clearly  and  concisely  express 
the  idea  intended  in  a  form  intelligible  to  the  scholar. 

2.  We  should  not  ask  questions  which  pupils  cannot  be 
reasonably  expected  to  answer,  or  on  subjects  on  which  the 
pupil  is  not  likely  to  have  some  knowledge.  It  would  be 
absurd  to  question  young  children  on  problems  in  algebra 
or  on  abstruse  and  metaphysical  theology. 

3.  It  will  be  well  to  avoid  such  as  indicate  the  answer  in 
the  form  of  the  question  or  in  the  tone  of  the  voice.  If  the 
question  is  put  in  the  language  of  the  text,  too  much  ia 
usually  told,  as  is  the  case  in  the  yes-and-no  style.  In  a 
word,  rote-questions — questions  which  can  be  answered  by 
yes  and  no — should  be  avoided,  and  we  should  aim  usually 
to  get  answers  in  the  pupil's  own  language. 


^ 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE,  377 

Example. — Suppose  the  lesson  to  be  The  Gracious  Call. 
Matt.  xi.  25-30.  Questions  of  this  sort  are  not  uncommon  : 
Whom  does  Jesus  thank  ?  By  what  name  does  he  address 
God?  To  whom  has  the  Father  revealed  these  things? 
Questions  of  this  kind  are  each  answered  by  a  word  or  two 
of  the  text,  and  would  bring  out  the  facts  of  the  lesson,  but 
would  hardly  get  beyond  the  bare  facts. 

Questions  like  these  would  better  subserve  the  purpose 
of  good  teaching :  How  was  Jesus  engaged  ?  v.  25.  For 
what  does  he  thank  his  Father  in  heaven  ?  What  things 
does  he  speak  of  as  hidden  ?  Who  are  meant  by  the  wise 
and  prudent?     Who  by  babes? 

Such  questions  stimulate  the  pupil's  thought,  and  tend  to 
bring  out  the  spiritual  significance  of  the  lesson  as  well  as 
the  mere  facts. 

4.  Scholars  should  not  be  rebuffed,  however  wide  of  the 
mark  in  their  answers.  Make  something  of  each  answer, 
and  as  much  as  possible.  Magnanimous  encouragement  in 
word  and  manner  in  this  as  in  other  matters  is  a  potent 
agent  for  good,  and  constitutes  an  important  element  in  all 
good  teaching. 

Positively. — In  class  teaching  or  in  reviews  of  the  whole 
school  from  the  desk,  we  notice — 

1.  The  Simultaneous  Method. — Questions  may  be 
profitably  propounded  to  the  whole,  allowing  class  or  school 
to  answer  simultaneously  to  a  limited  extent.  The  sympa- 
thy of  numbers  and  the  enthusiasm  generated  by  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  whole  should  be  taken  advantage  of.  But 
this  mode  should  never  be  made  exclusive.  Rigid  and 
regular  questioning  of  individuals  is  the  only  certain 
method  of  knowing  that  the  subject  is  clearly  apprehended, 
especially  by  the  dull  scholars.  But  in  questioning  indi- 
viduals care  should  be  had  that  the  whole  class  is  attentive 
and  interested.  If  a  question  is  addressed  to  A,  B  and  C 
should  be  kept  on  the  alert  and  invited  to  correct  errors  or 

32* 


378  PBEPARINO   TO   TEACH. 

omissions.  In  a  word,  while  the  teacher  addresses  himself 
mainly  to  individuals,  he  will  really  interest  and  attract  the 
whole  class  simultaneously. 

2.  Aim  at  Directness. — We  should  cultivate  great  sim- 
plicity and  directness  in  thought  and  language.  Great  pains 
should  be  taken  to  adapt  the  language  and  style  of  ques- 
tions to  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  pupils,  and  to  clothe 
them  in  the  language  in  common  use  among  them.  This 
will  be  an  important  aid  in  making  our  meaning  clear. 
Questions  are  often  unanswered  because  not  understood. 
They  are  frequently  not  understood  because  they  travel 
all  round  the  point,  instead  of  driving  directly  at  it  in 
the  fewest  and  simplest  words. 

We  should  not  only  be  direct  in  style,  but  in  striving  to 
i-each  the  spiritual  import  of  the  truth  and  its  bearing  on 
the  scholar.  There  is  no  such  method  of  bringing  out  the 
relations  of  truth  to  the  human  soul  as  by  adroit  ques- 
tioning. 

3.  AVe  should  Aim  to  follow  Logical  Order. — Logic 
is  another  name  for  natural  order  and  fitness.  Questions 
should  be  so  arranged  as,  1st,  to  open  or  develop  the  exact 
subject  in  hand,  and  no  other ;  and  2nd,  so  that  one  part 
leads  naturally  on  by  successive  steps  to  another. 

Attention  to  this  kind  of  naturalness  greatly  aids  the 
teacher  in  teaching  and  the  pupil  in  remembering.  Keep- 
ing this  matter  in  mind  will  also  greatly  aid  in  that  clear- 
ness and  directness  which  are  so  essential  in  judicious  ques- 
tioning. 

A  writer  in  the  National  Teacher  suggests  substantially 
the  following  questions  as  profitable  for  teachers  to  propound 
to  themselves : 

Inquire,  1.  What  is  known  on  this  subject  by  my  class? 

2.  What  of  all  they  know  shall  I  select  as  a  foundation 
upon  which  to  build  what  I  wish  to  teach  ? 

3.  What  pointed  questions  sh£  11  I  ask  which  shall  not 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  379 

by  inflection  or  language  tell  the  scholars  what  should  be 
drawn  from  them  ? 

4.  In  how  many  ways  can  these  questions  be  answered  ? 
If  in  many,  reject  them. 

5.  Have  I  these  questions  in  logical  order,  so  that  one  is 
based  upon  another? 

6.  How  can  I  illustrate  this  lesson  ? 

7.  Do  I  so  fully  understand  and  believe  this  truth  as  to 
teach  with  enthusiasm  ? 

Recapitulatiox  and  Review. — No  lesson  is  complete 
till  its  main  points  have  been  recalled  in  questions  of  exam- 
ination. What  has  been  taught  should  be  recalled  in  the 
pupil's  own  language,  and  the  lesson  as  a  whole  should  be 
always  as  thoroughly  recapitulated  as  possible.  This  should, 
of  course,  not  be  mere  repetition  of  questions  already  asked. 
It  should  consist  rather  in  bringing  out  the  main  points, 
and  in  such  manner  as  to  give  some  correct  idea  of  the  les- 
son in  its  entirety.  Questions  of  this  kind  should  be  thrown 
in,  in  ever-varying  form,  all  through  the  lesson.  Truth  is 
only  really  taught  by  constant  repetition.  Simplify  and 
repeat,  simplify  and  repeat,  in  multiform  and  various  ways, 
should  be  the  motto  adopted  by  every  teacher.  The  mat- 
ter of  reviews  has  not  heretofore  attracted  the  attention 
which  its  importance  deserves.  Jlegular  and  systematic 
review  during  the  progress  of  each  lesson  is  inseparable 
from  all  good  teaching.  A  rapid  calling  back  of  some 
points  in  the  previous  lesson  should  also  precede  the  teach- 
ing of  the  lesson  in  hand.  In  addition  to  these,  general 
reviews  from  the  desk  by  pastor  or  superintendent  should 
be  introduced  regularly  and  as  often  as  is  practicable. 

The  quarterly  review  provided  for  in  the  International 
Series  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  it  should  by  no 
means  superseae  weekly  or  monthly  reviews  in  class  and 
from  the  desk.  The  limited  time  allotted  to  the  Sunday- 
school  will  not  allow  thorough  and  critical  exercises  of  this 


380  PREPARING  TO  TEACH,  ^ 

kind,  but  we  should  remember  that  a  crude  and  impartial 
review  is  better  than  none,  and  that  calling  back  a  few 
points  of  lessons  already  studied  will  often  form  a  link  that 
will  connect  them  together,  and  greatly  aid  in  remember- 
ing and  in  making  the  whole  available. 

The  scope  and  object  of  this  exercise  should  be  kept  dis- 
tinctly in  mind. 

We  lately  stood  on  the  adjacent  bluffs  which  entirely  over- 
look a  beautiful  and  substantial  Western  city.  The  entire  city, 
the  hills  on  the  opposite  shore,  glimpses  of  the  intervening 
river,  bits  of  landscape  in  the  distance,  all  distinctly  in  view, 
formed  a  most  beautiful  and  enchanting  scene.  But  if  one 
would  fully  take  in  its  points  of  interest  and  beauty,  and 
fix  the  whole  on  the  tablets  of  the  memory,  he  needs  to 
look  at  it  again  and  again.  New  features  of  the  landscape, 
fresh  beauties,  domes  and  spires  and  landmarks  before  un- 
noticed, all  attract  the  eye  and  challenge  admiration,  and 
the  scene  will  be  taken  in  fully  only  when  viewed  from  dif- 
ferent standpoints  and  in  the  ever-varying  light  of  sun- 
shine and  shadow. 

A  review,  as  the  form  of  the  word  indicates,  is  re-viewing, 
looking  again  at  the  subject.  It  is  not  a  study  in  detail  so 
much  as  a  look  at  the  whole  subject  from  different  stand- 
points and  in  its  various  aspects.  Thus  new  beauty  and 
significance  is  seen,  as  well  as  the  proper  relations  of  the 
several  parts  to  one  grand  whole. 


LESSOJf  IX. 
POWER  AND  METHODS  OF  ILLUSTEATION. 

I.  Its  Importance  and  Value. 

Apt  and  pertinent  illustration  is  a  most  potential  force 
in  teaching  or  in  speaking — a  force  the  importance  of  which 
is  not  likely  to  be  overestimated.     Other  things  being  equal, 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  381 

that  speaker  or  teacher  who  most  Avisely  selects  and  most 
skillfully  uses  illustrations  has  greatest  power  over  the 
minds  and  hearts  of  average  hearers  and  pupils.  Abstract 
truth  is  not  seldom  dry  and  unintelligible  even  to  adults. 
It  is  often  all  Greek  to  a  child,  however  fluently  and 
clearly  presented. 

True  teaching  means  more  than  hearing  a  routine  re- 
citation or  the  mere  utterance  of  naked  truth.  The  pupil 
is  only  really  taught  when  he  is  made  to  see  and  remember 
something  of  the  import  of  what  is  taught — only  -svhen 
truth  is  brought  within  the  range  of  his  mental  vision. 
Divine  truth,  the  message  of  the  Infinite,  should  be  made 
plain  by  all  pertinent  illustrations  within  reach — by  all 
means  rightly  adapted  to  make  it  plain  to  finite  minds. 
The  rarest  gem  needs  the  golden  setting.  The  true  teacher 
should  aim  to  bring  out  the  truth  in  bold  and  distinct  re- 
lief, so  that  it  shall  be  fastened  in  the  memory — so  that  it 
shall  reach  the  heart  and  conscience. 

Memorizing,  recitation  and  statement  of  truth  by  the 
teacher  are  only  initial  steps  in  the  right  direction.  Well- 
chosen  illustrations  are  greatly  helpful  in  bringing  the 
truth  within  the  comprehension  of  the  scholar.  They  often 
serve  a  double  purpose:  not  only  do  they  aid  in  making 
truth  clear,  but  also  in  arresting  attention  and  enkindling 
interest.  How  often  dull  eyes  light  up,  and  restless,  roving 
minds  become  alert,  at  the  introduction  of  simile  or  story ! 

This  method  has  a  peculiar  charm  for  young  children. 
Fancy  and  metaphor  enter  very  largely  into  the  every- 
day lives  of  the  little  people.  Their  fund  of  words  is  small, 
and  so  it  is  intuitively  supplemented  by  infantile  drama 
and  pantomime.  Their  very  sports  are  representations  of 
the  outside  world,  or  what  they  fancy  it  to  be.  The  toy- 
house,  the  miniature  crockery,  the  doll  and  rocking-horse, 
are  emblems  of  their  notions  of  life  above  and  around  them 
— a  life  to  them  as  yet  a  strange  medley  of  fact  and  fancy. 


382  PBEPABING   TO   TEACH. 

Example. — Suppose  you  wish  fco  give  a  young  child  some 
correct  idea  of  the  omniscience  of  God.  Calling  attention 
to  the  vain  attempt  of  the  gold-fish  to  hide  out  of  sight  in 
the  globular  glass  tank  will  be  very  likely  to  give  an  idea 
of  the  subject  more  nearly  correct  than  a  long  statement  of 
the  abstract  truth. 

Judicious  illustration  has  a  peculiar  fascination  as  well 
as  special  value  for  young  children. 

IT.  Methods  of  Illustration. 

The  manner  of  using  illustrations  will  be  as  various  as 
is  their  endless  variety.  But  it  will  be  helpful  and  sug- 
gestive to  give  careful  attention  to  their  selection  and 
adaptation. 

1.  Selection. — Illustrations  divide  naturally  into  two 
kinds  :  1st,  such  as  help  to  explain  general  truths ;  and  2d, 
such  as  throw  light  on  obscure  statements. 

Those  designed  to  illustrate  principles  or  general  truths 
should  be  selected  from  things  familiar  to  the  pupil.  In 
teaching  a  class  of  city  boys,  familiar  only  with  shops  and 
artisans  and  city  life  in  its  more  common  phases,  it  will  not 
be  wise  to  draw  illustrations  from  objects  known  only  to 
dwellers  in  rural  districts.  A  dark  corner  .cannot  be 
illuminated  by  a  dark  lantern,  or  an  obscure  subject  by  an. 
illustration  of  which  the  pupil  has  no  knowledge.  Greek 
and  Latin  quotations  and  classical  allusions  may  be  apt 
and  forcible  with  cultivated  hearers,  but  they  are  unintel- 
ligible to  the  uneducated.  The  motion  of  the  starry  worlds 
and  the  vastness  and  magnificence  of  the  planetary  system 
may  be  made  useful  illustrations  among  advanced  pupils, 
but  they  would  be  worse  than  useless  with  a  class  of  pupils 
who  had  no  correct  notions  of  astronomy. 

2.  Adaptation. — The  wise  adaptation  of  illustrations 
should  receive  careful  attention.  It  is  not  enough  that  the 
fact  or  figure  is  familiar.     The  teacher  should  inquire — 1st, 


how  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  383 

What  is  the  exact  point  to  be  made  clear?  2d,  What 
familiar  fact  or  comparison  or  other  truth  will  really  help 
to  make  it  plain  ? 

We  lately  listened  to  a  speaker  who,  in  endeavoring  to 
elucidate  the  idea  of  consecration,  introduced  the  organ 
with  its  pipes  and  keys,  its  wondrous  harmony  and  count- 
less variations  of  sound,  as  manipulated  by  human  fingers. 
He  then  rattled  on,  as  fancy  seemed  to  dictate,  to  loco- 
motives and  coal  and  iron  fields,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
He  spoke  gracefully  and  earnestly,  but  his  subject  Avas 
muddled  rather  than  made  clear  from  utter  lack  of  adapta- 
tion in  his  illustrations  ;  in  fact,  as  used  by  the  speaker,  they 
seemed  to  have  no  relation  whatever  to  his  subject.  Teachers 
and  speakers  often  fail  utterly  at  this  point.  A  story  is  told 
which  perchance  swallows  up  the  truth  instead  of  illus- 
trating and  fastening  it.  A  figure  or  simile  is  introduced 
which  has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  subject  in  hand. 

III.  Classification. 

Illustrations  are  divided  naturally  by  Eev.  J.  M.  Free- 
man into  two  great  classes — the  verbal  and  the  visible, 

1.  Verbal  Illustrations. 

Under  the  first  head  we  notice — 

1.  The  Figurative. — Many  teachers  adopt  this  style 
intuitively  and  unconsciously.  Its  value  can  be  greatly 
enhanced  by  careful  study. 

Example. — Suppose  the  lesson  of  the  day  to  be  the  "  Two 
Foundations,"  Matt.  vii.  21-29.  The  lesson  is  in  itself  a 
most  beautiful  example  of  figurative  illustration.  To  the 
inhabitants  of  Palestine — a  country  of  hills  and  mountains 
and  deep  valleys,  subject  to  periodical  and  violent  rains 
that  swelled  the  mountain  rivulets  into  torrents  that  often 
flooded  the  valleys  and  swept  away  everything  which  was 


384  PBEPARING   TO   TEACH. 

not  on  a  sure  foundation — the  house  on  the  rock  and  the 
house  on  the  sand  were  fit  and  striking  illustrations  of  the 
truth  taught.  If  we  further  suppose  that  our  Lord,  while 
uttering  the  parable,  may  have  pointed  to  the  debris  of  a 
recent  freshet,  and  to  the  scattered  unburnt  bricks  that 
had  lately  composed  in  part  the  house  of  some  easy-going 
Oriental  who  had  actually  built  his  house  on  the  sand,  only 
to  be  swept  away  by  the  first  torrent,  the  force  and  beauty 
of  the  teaching  is  still  more  apparent.  But  to  a  class  of 
young  scholars  who  had  been  all  their  lives  shut  up  within 
the  substantial  brick  walls  of  a  great  city,  where  buildings 
stand  for  ages,  or  who  had  always  lived  in  a  level  country, 
where  freshets  never  occur,  the  beauty  of  the  parable  would 
not  be  so  readily  seen.  Bring  out  the  facts  of  time  and 
place  and  circumstance  under  which  the  words  were 
spoken,  and  the  wondrous  significance  of  the  lesson  stands 
revealed. 

One  phase  only  of  the  subject  has  thus  far  been  de- 
veloped. The  moral  import  of  the  truth  taught  will  be 
brought  out  by  illustrations  of  a  different  character  and 
from  every-day  life. 

2.  The  Nakrative. — A  good  story  well  told  always 
finds  ready  listeners.  If  it  is  brief  and  adapted  to  the  sub- 
ject in  hand,  it  can  often  be  made  to  serve  the  threefold 
purpose  of  awakening  interest,  making  plain  the  truth  and 
fastening  it  in  the  mind.  S])are  use,  however,  should  be 
made  of  stories.  The  right  kind  are  not  easy  to  obtain  in 
large  supply,  and  they  sometimes  excite  an  appetite  which 
is  only  appeased  by  a  constant  diet  of  the  same  sort.  Bible 
stories  should  take  precedence,  for  they  serve  to  familiarize 
with  the  Scriptures  as  well  as  to  illustrate  them. 

Example. — In  the  lesson  "  Teaching  to  Pray,"  Matt.  vi. 
3-15,  what  more  admirable  illustration  of  a  forgiving  spirit 
than  that  of  Joseph  ?  The  ten  brethren  who  had  conspired 
against  his  life  and  sold  him  into  slavery  are  completely  in 


now  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  385 

his  power,  but  he  nobly  leads  them  forth  out  of  prison  and 
addresses  to  them  the  magnanimous  words :  "  This  do  and 
live ;  for  I  fear  God."  And  so  he  sent  them  away  with  corn 
for  their  famine-stricken  households,  while  he  plans  a  still 
greater  deliverance  for  them  and  for  all  his  father's  house. 

Eastern  manners  and  customs,  Bible  geography  and  his- 
tory, afford  a  wide  field  for  selection. 

Example.— "The  Flight  into  Egypt,"  Matt.  ii.  13-23. 
Opportunity  is  here  offered  for  investing  the  lesson  with 
the  added  interest  that  centres  in  a  land  once  the  most 
powerful  among  the  nations,  the  home  of  culture,  art  and 
learning,  once  the  theatre  of  the  career  of  the  unrivaled 
Joseph,  the  deliverer  of  God's  ancient  people,  now  the 
asylum  of  the  Christ-child,  who  is  so  soon  to  accomplish  a 
greater  and  more  wonderful  deliverance  for  all  nations  and 
peoples.  The  modes  of  travel  then  in  use,  compared  with 
those  of  the  present  day,  and  the  ministry  of  the  angels, 
afford  still  wider  field  for  illustrative  teaching. 

Nature,  art  and  daily  life,  newspapers  and  the  whole  cir- 
cuit of  literature,  should  also  be  laid  under  contribution  for 
constant  additions  to  the  teacher's  stock  of  illustrations. 

2.  Visible  Illustrations. 

The  eye  is  said  to  be  the  king  of  the  senses.  What  is 
seen  by  the  eye  of  sense  is  always  more  vivid  and  real  than 
what  is  discerned  by  mental  processes ;  hence  the  peculiar 
value  of  visible  illustrations.  A  skillful  word-picture  can 
be  made  vivid  and  real  if  the  pupil  has  some  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  but  without  this  the  mental  image  is  likely  to 
be  unreal  and  distorted  if  perchance  any  distinct  impression 
has  been  made. 

A  minute  description  of  a  locomotive  would  ordinarily 

be  of  little  interest  to  a  child  who  had  never  seen  one  and 

who  knew  nothing  of  its  wonderful  capabilities ;  but  show 

him  a  picture  of  the  machine ;  explain  its  uses,  its  beauty, 
3;^ 


386  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

its  marvelous  utility ;  better  still,  place  him  beside  the  iron 
horse,  let  him  see  its  sinews  of  steel,  its  breath  of  fire,  its 
wondrous  speed  and  power  and  tireless  strength.  The 
child  will  have  obtained  in  a  few  moments  more  correct 
knowledge  of  the  locomotive  by  this  visible  illustration 
than  by  any  amount  of  tedious  verbal  description.  " 
Among  forms  of  visible  illustration  we  notice — 

1.  The  Blackboard. — While  artists  may  do  special 
and  valuable  service  with  chalk  and  colored  crayons,  we 
suggest  that  elaborate  and  complicated  exercises  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  attempted  by  ordinary  teachers.  The 
blackboard  has,  however,  numerous  plain  uses.  Texts, 
catch-words,  points  of  an  address,  initial  letters,  notices, 
diagrams,  outline  maps  and  a  variety  of  simple  devices 
can  be  written  in  bold  characters,  so  as  to  catch  the  eye 
and  be  thus  more  readily  impressed  on  the  mind.  It  can 
be  made  greatly  useful  with  primary  scholars.  Perhaps  its 
greatest  value  inheres  in  the  underlying  principle  that, 
makes  it  available  in  class  teaching,  in  form  of  slate  and 
note-book.  Its  use  in  this  form  cannot  be  too  strongly 
commended. 

2.  Maps. — No  schoolroom  or  teacher's  study  is  complete 
without  a  supply  of  good  maps.  Pointing  out  the  exact 
spot  where  a  given  event  occurred  not  only  adds  to  the 
store  of  valuable  knowledge,  but  greatly  enhances  interest 
in  the  subject.  Rough  outline  maps  on  note-book  or  slate 
may  be  made  a  fruitful  source  of  illustration. 

3.  Pictures. — Good  pictures,  such  as  correctly  depict 
Bible  scenes,  have  an  unending  charm,  and  are  especially 
adapted  to  primary  classes.  They  should,  however,  only  be 
shown  when  they  are  used  ;  if  left  to  hang  in  constant  sight, 
they  lose  their  freshness  and  interest. 

4.  Objects. — These  can  be  made  of  great  interest  and 
value.  Mementoes  of  the  Holy  Land  have  always  a  new 
interest,  and  so  far  as  they  illustrate  Eastern  manners  and 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  387 

customs  and  throw  light  on  the  Scriptures,  they  have  the 
highest  value.  Objects  in  art  and  nature — fruit,  flowers, 
vines,  faded  leaves  and  growing  grain — may  sometimes  sub- 
serve a  good  purpose. 

Object  illustration  has  many  important  uses,  but  object 
teaching  should  hardly  find  prominent  place  in  the  Sunday- 
school.  Object  illustration  even  should  be  introduced  with 
great  care  and  discrimination,  else  the  object  may  run  away 
with  the  attention  sought  to  be  directed  to  the  subject.  A 
distinguished  personage  was  lately  called  upon  to  address  a 
large  school  in  a  neighboring  city.  He  chose  the  resur- 
rection for  his  subject.  In  his  well-meant  zeal  to  illustrate 
it  he  took  into  the  school  a  live  chicken.  He  had  obtained 
something  to  represent  an  artificial  shell,  and  the  chicken 
was  made  to  appear  to  have  broken  the  shell  and  to  seem 
to  be  just  coming  out  of  it.  A  decided  sensation  was  pro- 
duced. The  chicken  demonstrated  long  and  loud.  But 
the  chicken  swallowed  the  subject,  and  left  an  impression 
on  the  school  which  the  judicious  superintendent  will  not 
care  to  have  reproduced.  The  performance  was  worse  than 
a  failure;  it  was  a  farce. 

Illustrative  teaching  has  the  highest  possible  sanction. 
It  was  pre-eminently  the  method  of  the  great  Teacher. 
The  grass,  the  flowers,  the  husbandman  scattering  the  seed 
broadcast  on  his  native  hills,  the  fig  tree  by  the  wayside, 
parable  and  story,  metaphor,  events  of  history  and  homely 
facts  of  every-day  life  furnished  him  most  beautiful  and 
impressive  illustrations  of  his  mighty  themes. 


388  PREPARING   TO   TEACH. 

LESSOJ^  X 
THE  TEACHEE'S  WEEK-DAY  WORK. 
The  hour  on  the  Sabbath  is  by  no  means  the  whole  of 
the  successful  teacher's  work.  He  may  prepare  never  so 
well  and  teach  never  so  faithfully,  and  fail  signally  so  far 
as  the  highest  good  of  the  pupil  is  concerned.  We  seek 
not  only  to  instruct  in  the  word,  but  to  impress  the  heart 
and  mould  the  character.  Very  much  therefore  remains 
to  be  done  outside  of  the  schoolroom.  Of  the  week-day 
work  of  careful  study  and  preparation  we  have  already 
spoken;  concerning  the  remaining  features  of  this  work  we 
notice — 

1.  The  Teacher  should  know  his  Pupils  individu- 
ally.— The  class  affords  very  limited  opportunity  for  per- 
sonal acquaintance.  The  teacher  needs  to  know  the  habits, 
peculiarities,  manner  of  life  and  home  surroundings  of  the 
scholar.  He  needs  to  be  brought  into  familiar  and  unof- 
ficial relations  with  them,  where  the  teacher's  garb  is  laid 
aside  and  the  scholar  assumes  his  natural  and  every-day 
manner  and  bearing.  Such  opportunities  are  only  afforded 
during  the  week. 

2.  Confidence  must  be  Won. — This  is  best  accomplished 
by  little  acts  of  kindness  and  courtesy.  Scholars  should 
not  only  be  cordially  recognized  in  the  class,  but  on  the 
street.  A  pause,  a  nod,  a  smile  that  fairly  lights  up  the 
face,  a  hearty  hand-shake  on  the  street  or  in  shop  or  store, 
is  always  a  great  pleasure  to  a  child.  Young  people,  and 
even  little  children,  are  keenly  appreciative  of  true  polite- 
ness, and  often  as  keenly  feel  its  neglect,  shy  and  awkward 
as  they  sometimes  seem.  The  Sunday-school  teacher  can- 
not afford  often  to  be  in  so  much  haste  as  to  neglect  to 
cross  the  street  if  necessary  in  order  to  speak  to  one  of  his 
scholars.  This  should  be  a  part,  and  no  small  part,  of  his 
week-day  work. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  389 

3.  The  Teacher  should  be  a  real  Friend. — Nothing 
so  takes  hold  of  young  natures  as  that  love  which  is  mani- 
fested by  outward  acts  such  as  one  friend  unconsciously 
shows  to  another.  One  of  the  simplest  and  commonest  of 
these  is  an  informal  call  at  the  home.  This  is  always  a 
palpable  evidence  of  friendly  interest.  Besides,  it  giveg 
opportunity  to  know  the  pupil's  home  associations,  employ- 
ments and  habits.  It  gives  insight  into  real  needs  and 
trials  and  temptations,  and  vastly  aids  the  teacher  in  intel- 
ligent efforts  to  reach  and  benefit.  It  also  enables  the 
teacher  to  know  the  parents,  assists  to  gain  their  confidence 
and,  what  is  more  important  still,  their  co-operation. 

Numberless  opportunities  will  occur  in  which  the  faithful 
sympathetic  teacher  can  prove  a  trusted  and  valued  friend. 
Is  the  pupil  sick  ?  The  teacher  may  minister  to  his  com- 
fort. Is  he  out  of  employment  ?  The  teacher  may  vouch 
for  character  and  help  him  to  a  place.  Is  he  out  of  town  ? 
The  teacher  can  write  a  friendly  letter.  Is  the  scholar 
tempted  to  go  astray?  If  confidence  exists,  the  teacher 
may  provide  the  exact  safeguard  needed  to  save  from  wreck 
and  ruin.  Your  sympathy  and  help  in  time  of  afiliction 
and  trouble  will  bind  teacher  and  scholar  together  in  ties 
stronger  than  hooks  of  steel. 

4.  Choose  Fit  Times  and  Occasions  for  this  Week- 
day Work. — It  will  not  be  best  to  visit  the  homes  of  the 
poor  on  washing  days,  or  at  an  hour  when  the  father  is 
usually  away  and  the  young  people  at  school,  nor  the 
parlors  of  the  rich  when  the  house  is  likely  to  be  full  of 
company.  Visits  should  not  be  stiff  and  stately,  not  of 
the  full  dress,  kids  and  silk  and  satin  order,  not  of  the 
formal  and  official  kind  alone.  They  should  not  be  for 
looking  after  delinquents  only.  They  should  not  be  always 
solely  religious.  The  matter  of  delinquency  and  personal 
religion  should  by  all  means  receive  faithful  attention  at 

all  proper  seasons.     But  these  personal  matters  should  not 
33* 


390  PEEPABINQ   TO   TEACH. 

be  lugged  in  at  all  times,  and  furnish  the  only  occasions  of 
calling.  Visits  from  the  teacher  should  be  informal  and 
social,  and  expressive  in  the  best  sense  of  genuine  friendly 
feeling.  Social  visits  of  this  kind  are  hailed  with  delight,  and 
independent  of  the  added  knowledge  of  the  scholars'  peculiar 
circumstances  and  special  needs,  often  afford  very  great  aid  in 
acquiring  an  influence  for  good — a  help  that  is  not  un- 
derstood by  those  who  have  not  faithfully  tried  it. 

A  teacher  once  visited  a  scholar  who  had  been  absent 
several  Sabbaths,  and  found  him  taking  care  of  a  sick  sister. 
He  expressed  his  pleasure  at  finding  the  boy  thus  engaged, 
and  with  wise  tact  said  nothing  about  absences.  When 
about  to  leave,  the  lad  looked  up  and  said  pleasantly,  "  I 
am  coming  to  school  again,  teacher."  The  point  was  gained, 
and  in  the  right  way.  The  boy  came  back  in  due  time,  was 
brought  to  Christ,  and  went  in  after  years  to  Africa  as  a 
missionary  catechist.  He  once  acknowledged  to  his  teacher 
that  he  had  made  up  his  mind  to  leave  the  school.  That 
visit  and  the  teacher's  "  kind  way  of  speaking "  touched 
his  heart  and,  it  may  be,  saved  him  from  ruin.  How  small 
a  thing  sometimes  changes  the  entire  current  of  a  life ! 

5.  Avoid  perpetual  Faultfinding. — Find  something 
to  commend,  if  nothing  better  than  a  clean  floor,  or  a  well- 
blacked  stove,  or  an  apparent  effort  of  Susie  or  John  to 
master  the  lesson.  If  possible,  find  some  encouraging  word 
to  say  to  the  parents  concerning  their  children.  An  ounce, 
of  encouragement  is  better  than  a  pound  of  scolding.  A 
slight  commendation  will  often  prove  more  efficient  for  good 
than  any  amount  of  faultfinding. 

6.  Invite  Scholars  to  your  House. — Polite  atten- 
tion of  this  kind  is  often  very  potential  in  its  influence.  No 
matter  if  the  boys  are  uncouth  in  appearance  and  rough  in 
manner,  or  if  the  girls  are  awkward  or  unfashionably 
dressed.  Go  with  them  into  kitchen  or  bath-room  if  neces- 
sary, and  all  have  a  good  wash,  not  forgetting  the  ceremony 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  391 

yourself.  Entertain  them  with  music,  pictures  and  innocent 
games.  Serve  some  slight  refreshments  or  seat  them  at  the 
tea-table  with  the  family.  At  the  close  of  the  appointed 
time  (invite  only  for  a  specified  time)  have  a  little  earnest 
talk  on  personal  bearing  and  conduct,  suggest  how  they 
may  be  helpful  to  you  and  to  each  other,  and  then,  maybe, 
unite  in  prayer  for  a  blessing  on  the  class,  on  each  member 
and  on  each  home. 

By  such  cheap  and  simple  means  you  may  give  your 
class  a  happy  hour.  You  may  perchance  introduce  them 
to  a  new  world  and  a  new  atmosphere,  and  throw  around 
them  softening  and  refining  influences.  More  than  this, 
you  may  make  a  decided  advance  in  winning  the  love  and 
confidence  which  are  largely  the  source  of  your  power, 
which  you  so  highly  prize,  and  chiefly  that  you  may  trans- 
fer it  to  the  Master  whose  you  are  and  whom  you  serve. 

If  scholars  are  grown  boys  or  young  men,  these  social 
influences  are  all  the  more  important.  Ladies  of  intelli- 
gence, tact  and  social  position  who  are  willing  to  conse- 
crate their  powers  to  the  Master  can  often,  by  a  judicious 
and  self-denying  use  of  those  social  amenities  w^hich  they 
so  well  know  how  to  wield,  do  the  highest  and  noblest 
work  in  the  way  of  holding  and  saving  these  young  men, 
just  at  the  critical  age  when  so  many  are  closely  verging 
on  destruction. 

5.  Write  Letters  to  your  Scholars. — These  are 
often  productive  of  great  good.  A  letter  written  and  di- 
rected all  to  one's  self  is  an  immense  pleasure  to  a  child. 
It  is  an  event.  It  is  next  to  a  visit.  Besides,  it  gives  op- 
portunity to  say  privately  and  directly  on  the  matter  of  per- 
sonal feeling  and  experience  what  could  not  be  well  said 
in  the  class,  and  which  one  cannot  always  find  fit  oppor- 
tunity to  say  privately  in  person.  Many  of  the  best  teach- 
ers practice  this  method  of  week-day  letter- writing,  and 
with  the  best  results. 


392  PREPARING   TO    TEACH. 

Lastly,  Frequent  Oppoktunity  should  be  Sought 
TO  Speak  with  each  Scholar  Alone. — Class  teaching 
must  be  more  or  less  of  a  general  nature.  It  is  not  always 
best  to  speak  pointedly  to  a  scholar  of  his  own  feelings  and 
hopes,  his  temptations  and  trials,  in  the  presence  of  the 
class.  Hence  opportunity  should  be  regularly  sought  for 
speaking  to  each  alone.  No  sense  of  delicacy  is  then  offended, 
and  a  frank  expression  is  much  more  likely  to  be  made. 
The  teacher  who  does  not  speak  privately  to  individual 
pupils  on  the  matter  of  personal  faith  in  Christ  loses  the 
most  precious  and  hopeful  occasions  for  accomplishing  the 
work  in  hand. 

Let  us  be  mindful  that,  while  the  teaching  of  the  word 
is  the  great  instrument  on  which  we  must  rely  for  the  sal- 
vation of  our  scholars,  its  effectual  presentation,  so  far  as 
we  are  concerned,  must  depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  per- 
sonal influence  which  we  may  acquire  over  them.  Our  ob- 
ject is  not  alone  to  instruct.  It  is  to  win  these  young  peo- 
ple to  Christ,  to  train  and  develop  them  for  his  service. 
It  is,  by  the  divine  blessing,  to  influence  and  mould  and 
guide  them  into  a  true  and  noble  manhood  and  womanhood. 
This  personal  influence  is  won  or  lost  very  largely  by  the 
teacher's  week-day  work. 


LESSOJS"  XL 
JESUS  THE  MODEL  TEACHER. 

Our  Lord,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  finished  work,  took 
our  nature  and  humbled  himself  to  become  the  man  Christ 
Jesus.  He  took  our  infirmities  and  was  tempted  in  all 
things  like  as  we  are.  He  touched  our  humanity  at  all 
possible  points,  save  that  of  sinfulness,  that  he  might  be  our 
pattern,  guide  and  teacher. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  393 

The  really  successful  teacher  teaches  not  by  formal  in- 
culcation of  the  truth  alone.  His  life,  his  spirit,  his  cha- 
racter, are  to  the  child  far  better  exponents  of  the  truth 
than  his  half  hours  in  the  class,  and  far  more  potent  in 
results. 

He  who  would  become  a  wise  master-builder  should  not 
only  study  architecture  and  its  rules ;  he  should  study  the 
methods  of  those  who  have  most  excelled,  and  also  the  men 
themselves.  He  who  would  perfect  himself  in  art  should 
study  the  best  masters — the  methods,  the  habits  and  lines 
of  thought  of  the  men  who  have  immortalized  their  names 
as  well  as  their  ideals  on  the  canvas  and  in  the  marble. 

Whoever  would  excel  as  a  Christian  teacher  should  study 
the  work  and  methods  of  the  great  Teacher.  Not  less  should 
he  study  the  Teacher  himself — his  spirit,  his  character  and 
manner  of  life.  All  other  models  are  full  of  imperfections. 
Christ  alone  should  be  studied  constantly  and  followed  fully, 
keeping  in  mind  always  that  he  was  God  as  well  as  man. 
Prophet  and  revealer  of  new  truth  as  well  as  Teacher,  and 
that  he  mainly  taught  men  and  women,  and  not  children, 
and  by  "  authority,  and  not  as  the  scribes." 

We  have  space  only  to  note  a  few  of  those  human  cha- 
racteristics to  which  perchance  our  attention  most  needs  to 
be  directed. 

Observe,  1.  His  Lowly  Lot. — He  chose  a  life  of  poverty, 
isolation  and  toil.  He  was  a  child  of  peasant  parentage, 
and  no  doubt  toiled  as  a  dutiful  son  at  his  father's  trade. 
Entering  on  his  public  ministry,  he  affected  no  pomp  or 
circumstance.  He  traveled  on  foot  over  the  dusty  plains 
and  over  the  bleak  mountain-tops.  He  ate  with  publicans 
and  sinners.  He  chose  illiterate  fishermen  for  his  con- 
fidential witnesses  and  friends.  He  was  the  friend  and 
physician  of  the  poor  and  lame  and  blind,  and  of  the  little 
children.  He  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph,  in  the  ful- 
fillment of  prophecy  spoken    ages    before,  amid   emblems 


394  PREPARING  TO  TEACH. 

of  victory  scattered  along  his  way,  but  seated  on  an  ass- 
colt.  He  had  no  words  of  commendation  for  the  shouts  of 
the  populace,  but  he  recognized  the  hosannas  of  the  chil- 
dren as  acceptable  praise.  He  paused  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  to  heal  the  lame  and  blind  who  came  with  the 
surging  throng  to  do  him  homage. 

Amid  the  wild  pursuit  of  happiness  and  personal  ease,  in 
our  hot  haste  to  be  rich  and  what  the  world  calls  great, 
may  we  not  profitably  pause  to  consider  the  lowly  lot  of 
our  Lord  ? 

2.  His  Self-abnegation. — Consider  the  glory  of  the 
heavenly  kingdom,  the  abdicated  throne,  the  humbling  of 
the  Infinite  to  take  on  the  finite,  the  long  years  of  isolation 
and  toil  in  obscure  Nazareth.  Think  of  the  long  weary 
pilgrimages  during  his  ministry,  his  daily  and  almost  hourly 
contact  with  suffering  and  disease  and  death  in  all  hideous 
and  repulsive  forms. 

His  countrymen  would  at  one  time  have  made  him  king, 
but  he  spurned  the  purple  and  pomp  of  royalty.  He  counted 
no  act  menial  that  was  done  for  weak,  suffering  humanity. 
He  ministered  without  recompense  to  the  friendless  and  the 
poor.  He  fed  the  hungry  throng,  lest  they  should  be  weary 
and  faint  in  the  way.  He  washed  the  disciples'  feet;  he 
broiled  the  fish  on  which  on  a  time  they  dined. 

3.  His  Tireless  Zeal. — Restive  of  the  slow  flight  of 
years  before,  according  to  Jewish  custom,  he  could  enter 
on  his  public  ministry,  he  disputed,  at  twelve  years  of  age, 
with  the  doctors  in  the  synagogue,  because  he  must  be  about 
his  Father's  business.  Worn  with  incessant  toil,  he  stopped 
not  for  rest  while  invalid  throngs  pressed  upon  him  for  heal- 
ing, and  while  mothers  waited  for  a  blessing  on  their  little 
ones.  Though  the  night  watches  were  devoted  to  prayer, 
the  gray  dawn  found  him  walking  on  the  boisterous  sea,  to 
rescue  and  comfort  the  disciples  who  were  wearily  buffeting 
the  storm. 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  395 

4.  His  Exhaustless  Patience. — Crowds  thronged  him 
at  all  hours.  Women  pressed  to  touch  his  garments. 
Peasant  children  were  brought  to  him,  perhaps  unwashed 
and  unkempt.  His  disciples  strove  among  themselves  about 
precedence.  Judas  basely  betrayed  and  Peter  ignobly  de- 
nied him.  Scribes  and  elders  sought  his  life ;  proud  Phari- 
sees mocked  and  insulted.  The  rabble  shouted  hosannas, 
and  anon  cried,  "  Crucify  him !  crucify  him !"  Yet  he 
uttered  no  angry,  impatient  words,  he  bandied  no  epithets, 
he  hurled  no  threats  or  taunts  or  stinging  rebukes.  He 
kindly  and  patiently  taught  scoffing  lawyers  and  fickle 
multitudes,  and  was  rejected  by  the  mass  of  his  country- 
men. He  sowed  the  precious  seed  through  long  patient 
years,  but  left  the  glory  of  the  harvest  to  be  gathered  by 
his  followers. 

5.  His  Kindness  to  the  Erring. — How  tenderly  he 
treated  the  erring  woman  !  Self-righteous  Jews  would  have 
stoned.  Our  Lord  has  no  words  of  harsh  upbraiding ;  but 
while  her  self-condemned  accusers  are  shrinking  silently 
away,  he  says,  with  looks  of  pity  and  words  of  tenderness, 
"  Go,  sin  no  more."  He  wept  tears  of  sympathy  over  the 
rebellious  holy  city.  He  condemned  the  profane  and 
cowardly  Peter  only  by  a  look  of  grief  and  pity.  He  not 
only  welcomes  the  returning  prodigal,  but  pictures  tho 
father  as  running  to  meet  him  afar  off  in  his  rags  an*! 
degradation.  To  the  three  who  slept  while  on  guard  in  th'^ 
night  of  his  agony  he  spoke  in  tones  of  commiseration  rather 
than  of  blame:  ''What,  could  ye  not  watch  with  me  ore 
hour?     The  spirit  indeed  is  willing,  but  the  flesh  is  weak.'^ 

6.  His  Affectionate  Manner. — AVe  do  not  propope 
to  dwell  on  the  infinite  love  of  our  adorable  Lord — a  love 
evidenced  by  a  life  of  toil  and  privation  and  a  death  of 
agony — but  simply  to  call  attention  to  the  manner  of  its 
manifestation.  This  is  a  matter  which  should  engage  the 
careful  attention  of  all  teachers  of  the  young.     His  love 


396  PBEPABINO   TO   TEACH. 

was  not  only  deep  and  unremitting,  but  it  found  constant 
and  unmistakable  expression. 

Note  his  affectionate  manner  in  his  familiar  intercourse 
with  Martha  and  Mary  at  the  grave  of  Lazarus,  and  at  the 
gates  of  the  city  whence  was  carried  out  the  dead  boy,  the 
only  son  of  his  widowed  mother.  He  said  to  the  repentant 
profligate,  sick  of  the  palsy,  "Son,  be  of  good  cheer;  thy 
sins  be  forgiven  thee."  He  soothed  with  touch  and  word 
of  sympathy  the  disciples  affrighted  at  the  glimpse  of  the 
divine  glory  on  the  mount  of  transfiguration  ;  he  "  came 
and  touched  them,  and  said,  Ariose,  and  be  not  afraid."  To 
the  toiling  mariners  on  stormy  Tiberias  he  goes  in  the  early 
dawn  with  like  affectionate  words :  "  Be  of  good  cheer :  it 
is  I;  be  not  afraid." 

7.  His  Exaltation  of  the  Scriptures. — Our  Lord 
everywhere  magnified  the  written  word.  To  the  tempter 
he  said,  "It  is  written."  To  the  young  ruler's  weighty 
question  he  replied,  "  Keep  the  commandments."  He 
answered  envious  scribes  and  Pharisees  by  appealing  to 
the  law  and  the  prophets. 

For  his  own  he  prays,  "  Sanctify  them  through  thy  trutli ; 
thy  word  is  truth."  We  have  in  his  teachings  and  in  his 
example  the  highest  authority  and  sanction  for  the  greatest 
possible  exaltation  of  the  living  word,  pure  and  simple.  It 
is  the  only  instrument  of  salvation  and  Christian  growth, 
the  alone  sword  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  the  power  of  God  unto 
salvation. 

The  Great  Teacher's  Methods. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  speak  in  detail  of  our  Lord's 
methods  in  teaching — of  his  simplicity  of  thought  and  la!i- 
guage — of  the  entire  absence  of  the  artificial  and  the  sensa- 
tional— of  his  marvelous  tact  and  unerring  wisdom — of  his 
conversational  and  catechetical  modes  of  conveying  instruc- 
tion— of  his  wondrous    word-pictures  and    his    illustrative 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  397 

methods — we  can  only  here  notice  that  in  these,  as  in  all 
other  things,  Jesus  is  the  only  model  whom  we  may  ever 
wholly  and  entirely  follow.  His  methods,  no  Icfis  than  his 
character  and  manner  of  life,  should  be  our  constant  and 
life-long  study.  So  aptly  did  he  catechise  that  crafty  ene- 
mies were  confounded  and  self-condemned,  while  humble 
learners  were  led  quickly  into  the  clear  light  of  truth.  So 
skillfully  did  he  utilize  the  common  things  of  life  in 
illustration  of  the  weighty  truths  he  taught  that  the  very 
drapery  of  the  flowers  is  made  constantly  to  remind  us  of 
God's  pledge  of  needed  raiment,  and  the  chirp  of  the  spar- 
row of  his  promise  of  daily  food. 


LESSOM  XII. 


THE  HOLY  SPIKIT  THE  TEACHER'S  GUIDE  AND 

HELPER. 

I.  Mental  Culture  must  not  be  Ignored. 

We  have  treated  in  the  preceding  chapters  mainly  of  the 
teacher's  mental  furnishing.  AVe  are  not  likely  to  overes- 
timate its  importance.  A  certain  amount  of  mental  culture 
is  essential.  Let  us  recall  a  few  of  the  teacher's  more  im- 
perative intellectual  needs. 

1.  The  teacher  needs  all  educational  helps  within  reach  ; 
knowledge  is  power  always,  and  mental  discipline  is  inval- 
uable. We  do  not,  however,  wish  to  be  understood  as  mean- 
ing only  the  education  of  the  schools.  The  true  idea  of 
education  involves  a  life  process,  a  culture  and  discipline 
of  mind  and  heart,  that  is  more  or  less  successfully  pursued 
amid  the  busy  avocations  of  ordinary  life. 

2.  The  teacher  needs  some  knowledge  of  and  sympathy 
with  childhood.  The  man  who  has  forgotten  that  he  was 
once  a  boy,  or  the  woman  who  does  not  remember  that  she 

34 


398  PREPARING   TO   TEACH, 

u  us  once  a  gay  and  maybe  frivolous  girl,  is  ill  fitted  to  be 
u  successful  teacher. 

3.  The  teacher  imperatively  needs  some  knowledge  of 
methods,  of  the  few  simple  principles  that  underlie  all 
good  teaching.  He  should  know  that  the  bare  presentation 
of  truth  is  not  teaching.  True  teaching  brings  the  truth 
within  the  plane  of  the  pupil's  thought,  within  range  of  his 
mental  vision.  It  involves  the  seeing  and  measurable  un- 
derstanding of  truth  on  the  part  of  the  taught. 

4.  The  teacher  should  know  something  of  the  power  and 
method  of  illustration  if  he  would  teach  divine  truth  effect- 
ually. It  should  be  the  great  aim  of  the  teacher  so  to 
bring  out  the  truth  that  it  may  be  fastened  in  the  memory, 
and  thus  reach  the  conscience  and  influence  the  life. 

5.  Most  of  all  does  the  teacher  need  that  mental  and  moral 
discipline  that  comes  of  regular  and  persistent  study  of 
the  word  of  God.  He  may  get  on  with  little  education 
and  few  helps,  but  without  constant  and  devout  study  of  the 
sacred  text  as  a  preparation  for  teaching,  and  as  a  means 
of  grace  to  himself,  he  must  fail  of  the  best  success. 

Richard  Hampton — better  known  in  England  as  Foolish 
Dick— was  not  only  very  illiterate,  but  he  was  counted 
almost  an  idiot.  Yet  he  became  a  very  useful  minister  of 
the  gospel  among  his  class.  He  owed  his  success  in  great 
measure  to  the  fact  that  he  was  a  most  earnest  and  prayerful 
student  of  the  word  of  God. 

While,  then,  intellectual  furnishing  is  important,  and  in 
a  measure  essential,  it  is  of  little  worth  unless  supplemented 
by  the  spiritual  and  divine.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  spir- 
itual power,  and  it  constitutes  the  most  important  part  of 
the  teacher's  preparation. 

II.  The  Aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  Essential. 

A  professor  in  one  of  our  theological  seminaries  once  said 
to  his  graduating  class,  "  Young  gentlemen,  you  are  com- 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  399 

paratively  few  in  numbers;  but  if  you  will  double  your 
spirituality,  you  will  double  your  numbers."  Let  us  here 
and  now  say  to  the  teachers  of  the  schools,  If  you  will 
double  your  spirituality,  you  will  quadruple  your  power. 
We  have  a  deep  and  abiding  conviction  that  it  is  the  high 
privilege  of  all  teachers  and  Christian  workers  so  to  in- 
crease their  spiritual  forcefulness  as  to  add  many  fold  to 
their  usefulness,  as  well  as  to  the  joy  of  their  Christian 
experience.  Would  God  we  could  persuade  all  Sunday- 
school  teachers  earnestly  to  seek  and  confidently  to  expect 
such  large  manifestations  of  divine  grace  and  power  as  our 
gracious  Lford  delights  to  bestow ! 

After  our  Lord  had  risen,  he  commanded  the  disciples 
to  wait  till  they  should  be  endued  with  power  from  on 
high.  The  Church  was  weak,  the  enemy  apparently  tri- 
umphant, the  world  was  perishing,  yet  they  waited  patiently 
for  the  robing.  Let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the 
nature  of  this  power.  Evidently  it  was  not  conversion. 
The  twelve  and  the  seventy  were  no  doubt  true  disciples, 
and  had  been  commissioned  to  preach  and  teach  by 
Christ  himself.  It  was  not  ordinary  sanctifying  grace. 
James  and  John  and  Philip  and  Bartholomew  and  the 
Marys  no  doubt  were  decent  Christians  before  the  wait- 
ing in  the  upper  room.  It  was  not  miraculous  power. 
The  disciples  had  worked  miracles  not  a  few  before  our 
Lord's  passion. 

Positively,  1,  It  was  more  and  better  than  miraculous 
power.  First,  apostles,  second,  prophets,  third,  teachers, 
after  that  miracles,  is  the  scriptural  order.  The  one  was 
temporary  and  incidental,  the  other  essential  and  in  per- 
petuity. 

2.  It  was  better  than  the  personal  presence  of  Christ 
himself.  He  declared  it  expedient  that  he  should  go  away 
that  the  Comforter  might  come. 

3.  It  was  a  mysterious,  unseen,  intangible,  yet  potential 


400  PBEPABINQ   TO   Ti^ACH. 

force.  It  conveyed  unwouted  aptness  of  sjeecli  and  of 
teaching,  a  clearer  and  more  perfect  understanding  of  truth, 
and  a  certain  wondrous  power  over  the  hearts  and  con- 
sciences of  men.  Peter  was  the  same  unlettered  Galilean 
at  Pentecost  as  when,  in  the  porch  of  the  palace  of  the  high 
priest,  he  acted  the  coward  and  the  craven. 

4.  This  power,  then  and  now,  is  conferred  on  all  who  seek 
it  aright.  It  was  not  given  at  first  to  the  twelve  to  be  by 
them  transmitted  to  the  others.  The  tongue  of  fire — apt 
emblem  to  Jewish  minds  of  the  divine  presence — descended 
and  sat  on  each  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty,  on  apostles 
and  laymen  and  on  the  women. 

5.  This  divine  presence  confers  a  direct  and  positive  teach- 
ing power  :  "  But  the  Comforter,  which  is  the  Holy  Ghost, 
whom  the  Father  will  send  in  my  name,  he  shall  teach  you 
all  things." 

There  seems  a  vast  amount  of  practical  skepticism  con- 
cerning the  personal  presence  and  teaching  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  We  may  not  understand  the  mysterious  and 
delicate  process,  but  we  cannot  deny  the  facts.  Mind  acts 
on  mind.  Dull  eyes  light  up  to  the  gleam  of  sympathy. 
Smile  responds  to  smile,  and  heart  pulsates  responsively  to 
the  generous  beating  of  other  hearts ;  and  often  an  electric 
thrill  of  sympathy  goes  through  an  entire  audience,  struck 
out  by  one  earnest  magnetic  nature.  Why  should  it  be 
thought  a  thing  incredible  that  the  divine  should  act  on 
the  human,  the  Creator  on  the  creature?  Water  at  a 
low  temperature  is  hard  and  brittle.  Add  a  few  degrees 
of  heat,  and  it  becomes  liquid,  yet  inert  and  tame.  Super- 
heated and  confined,  it  evolves  a  power  that  has  revolution- 
ized continents  and  to-day  controls  the  commerce  of  the  na- 
tions. Yet  power  is  in  itself  an  absolute  mystery.  We  can- 
not understand  or  describe  it.  Its  source  and  mysterious 
secrets  are  beyond  our  ken.  "  God  has  spoken  once,  yea, 
twice  have  I  heard  this,  that  power  belongeth  unto  God." 


HOW  TO   TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  '^^^ 

Let  us  now  inquire  what  special  helps  and  aptitud-^s  thid 
spiritual  power  affords  the  teacher. 

1.  It  Gives  Comfort. — The  teacher's  work  is  no  sine- 
cure. It  is  not  a  position  of  ease  or  luxury.  The  majority  of 
Sabbath-school  teachers  are  busy  men  and  women,  some- 
times sadly  overworked,  often  snatching  moments  from 
needed  rest  or  recreation  for  preparation  for  the  work  and 
for  the  work  itself.  Mental  acquirements  and  resources 
are  not  always  abundant.  Helps  are  few,  and  there  is  not 
seldom  a  lack  of  skill  in  using  them.  Children  are  restless 
and  inattentive  to  divine  things.  Human  nature  is  per- 
verse. The  enemy  is  ever  sowing  tares.  Strength  and 
patience  sometimes  give  way.  The  teacher  needs  such 
comfort  and  encouragement  as  human  help  and  sympathy 
can  never  give.  How  sweet  at  such  times  the  still  small 
voice  of  the  Spirit  speaking  to  weary  workers  in  tones 
and  words  of  infinite  tenderness  ! 

2.  It  Gives  Joy. — The  teacher  needs  a  cheerful,  joyful 
experience.  Long-faced,  sombre,  disconsolate  Christians 
must  have  rare  tact  and  grace  if  they  do  not  absolutely 
repel  the  young.  A  cheerful  type  of  piety  is  ever  attract- 
ive and  doubly  useful,  especially  to  children.  The  Spirit 
^ives  joy  as  well  as  consolation.  "  These  things  have  I 
spoken  to  you  that  in  me  ye  might  have  peace."  "  Ask, 
ind  ye  shall  receive,  that  your  joy  may  be  full."  How 
expressive  the  language !  The  Master  would  have  us  full 
of  joy  as  the  brimming  goblet  is  filled  with  the  limpid  water. 

3.  It  Promotes  Christian  Growth. — Teachers  should 

be  growthful  Christians.     They  should  steadily  advance  in 

love  and  patience  and  self-control,  and  in  all  such  elements 

as  constitute  s)' mmetrical  Christian  character,  and  especially 

in  that  faith  without  which  it  is  impossible  to  please  God — 

w'ithout  which  in  active  exercise  the  real  source  of  growth 

and  power  must  be  perpetually  ignored. 

"  We  teach  ar.d  we  are  taught  by  somethhig  about  ua 
34* 


402  PBEPABINQ  TO  TEACH. 

that  never  enters  into  language  at  all."  We  teach  not  so 
much  by  what  we  say  as  by  what  we  do — not  so  much  by 
what  we  profess  as  by  what  we  are.  The  teacher's  life  is 
the  great  object  illustration  of  the  truth,  the  exponent  of 
what  he  teaches  for  better  or  for  worse.  A  quaint  old 
writer  says  it  is  of  no  use  to  teach  cream  and  live  skim- 
milk.  The  commonest  and  homeliest  truths  become  radiant 
in  pristine  beauty  if  translated  into  beneficent  action,  if 
fairly  and  fully  illustrated  in  the  life. 

4.  It  Quickens  the  Intellect. — The  Spirit  of  God 
not  only  lights  up  the  sacred  page  with  wondrous  beauty 
and  significance.  It  arouses  dormant  energies,  quickens 
moral  perceptions,  clears  up  our  notions  of  right  and  wrong, 
and  so  lets  in  the  hidden  light  of  divine  truth.  "  Open 
thou  mine  eyes  that  I  may  behold  wondrous  things  out  of 
thy  law." 

If  we  would  see  clearly  and  understand  fully  the  beauty 
and  significance  of  what  we  teach,  we  must  seek  help  and 
light  from  the  divine  Messenger,  who  will  teach  us  all  things 
and  bring  all  things  to  our  remembrance.  The  telegraph 
performs  its  wondrous  work  rapidly  and  well  when  the  elec- 
tric current  is  full  and  strong,  when  connection  and  insula- 
tion are  perfect,  wheu  the  operator  is  alert  and  competent. 
The  Spirit  of  God  supplies  the  subtle  current  of  our  power, 
inspires  the  agencies,  perfects  all  mediums  and  applies  and 
renders  effective  the  great  instrument.  Let  us  remember 
that  the  highest  function  of  the  teacher  is  not  so  much  to 
impart  knowledge  as  to  stimulate  the  pupil  in  its  love  and 
pursuit.  The  Spirit  of  God  is  our  best  teacher,  because  he 
arouses  and  stimulates  the  dead  dormant  powers  within  us. 

5.  This  Spiritual  Power  is  Absolutely  Essential 
to  High  Success  in  Teaching. — The  most  careful  study 
of  lessons  and  methods  is  important  and  in  a  sense  essential. 
We  are  not  likely  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  these 
matters.     But  mental  furnishing  alone  is  of  small  value 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  BIBLE.  403 

unless  vitalized  by  the  spiritual  and  the  divine.  One  may 
be  orthodox  in  doctrine,  outwardly  correct  in  life,  complete 
in  mental  culture,  and  yet  "faultily  faultless,  icily  regular, 
splendidly  null."  We  aim  at  spiritual  results,  to  reach  the 
heart  and  influence  the  life.  Spiritual  power  is  absolutely 
essential  to  this  end.  We  may  pile  coal  and  wood  on  the 
grate  and  adjust  with  all  nice  propriety,  but  without  the 
glow  of  fire  all  will  be  cold  and  drear.  We  may  set  candles 
on  a  hundred  silver  candlesticks,  and  turn  the  gas  on  a 
thousand  jets  in  "  golden  chandeliers,"  but  without  the 
touch  of  flame  all  will  be  dark  and  desolate. 

Lastly,  We  Need  it  in  Large  Measure.  —  The 
teacher  needs  not  only  ordinary  grace,  but  to  be  robed  with 
the  Holy  Spirit  as  with  a  garment.  We  need  the  tongue 
of  fire,  power  to  understand  the  truth,  to  feel  its  force  and 
beauty,  so  that  it  may  be  felt  by  other  hearts  and  con- 
sciences, so  that  it  shall  not  be  fruitless  and  void.  "  He 
will  dwell  with  you,  and  be  in  you."  Let  us  seek  this  in- 
dwelling presence,  not  as  a  stranger  tarrying  for  a  nighty 
but  as  an  almighty  Friend  and  Helper  taking  up  his  abode 
with  us.  Large  measure  of  this  divine  presence  is  essential 
to  great  success.  It  is  like  the  full  stream  of  water  to  the 
mill,  like  the  full  pressure  of  steam  to  the  boiler,  like  the 
healthy  vital  current  to  the  heart's  pulsations.  With  small 
measure  of  grace,  our  experience  is  sad  and  dejected,  and 
our  work  is  fitful  and  discordant.  Filled  with  the  divine, 
our  experience  shall  be  full  of  joy,  our  lives  of  healthful 
vigor  and  our  work  abundant  in  its  fruitage. 


APPENDIX. 


A  SUNDAY-SCHOOL 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS. 

We  hereby  associate  ourselves  together  under  the  care 
and  supervision  of  our  church  and  session  for  Bible  study 
and  religious  services.  That  our  object  may  be  carried  out 
in  a  business-like  and  orderly  manner,  we  do  now  adopt  the 
following  Constitution  and  By-Laws. 

Art.  I.  This  Association  shall  be  called  the  Sabbath- 
school  of  the  Church  of  ,  and 
shall  embrace  such  adults  and  youth  as  shall  from  time  to 
time  join  us  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  such  officers 
and  teachers  as  shall  be  duly  appointed. 

Art.  II.  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  superintendent, 
assistant-superintendent,  secretary,  librarian  and  treasurer, 
with  such  assistants  as  may  be  needed. 

Art.  III.  The  pastor  of  the  church  is  ex-officio  pastor  of 
the  school. 

Art.  IV.  The  school,  being  a  part  of  the  church,  is  sub- 
ject to  its  affectionate  care  and  control. 

Art.  V.  The  superintendent  shall  be  appointed  by  and 
with  the  consent  of  the  pastor  and  session.  It  shall  be  the 
privilege  of  the  teachers  to  nominate,  but  their  choice  shall 
be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  session. 

Art.  VI.  Other  officers  shall  be  appointed  by  the  super- 
intendent, subject  to  the  approval  of  the  teachers'  meeting. 

Art.  VII.  The  teachers  shall  be  selected  by  the  pastor 

405 


406  PBEPABINO  TO  TEACH. 

and  superintendeut,  and  approved  by  the  teachers  in  reg- 
ular session.  After  four  weeks'  probation,  assent  shall  be 
required,  publicly  or  otherwise,  to  the  teachers'  pledge  here- 
with appended,  copies  of  which  will  be  furnished  to  each 
teacher. 

Art.  VIII.  The  officers  shall  be  appointed  annually,  and 
shall  hold  their  offices  for  one  year  or  until  others  are  ap- 
pointed. 

Art.  IX.  The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  on  the 

day  of  January  in  each  year,  at  which  time  the  officers 
shall  be  appointed. 

Art.  X.  This  Constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at 
any  annual  meeting  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  those  present, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  session  of  the  church. 

The  By-Laws  should  determine  the  hour  of  holding  the 
school,  time  of  teachers'  meeting,  anniversaries,  missionary 
meetings,  and  contain  the  teacher's  pledge,  together  with 
such  other  matters  as  are  deemed  important.  Care  should 
be  had  not  to  multiply  rules  ;  they  should  be  few  and  sim- 
ple, and  such  as  can  be  clearly  understood  and  faithfully 
carried  out. 

The  Teacher's  Pledge. 

I  hereby  pledge  myself  by  God's  help — 

1.  To  be  loyal  to  this  church,  to  the  superintendent  of 
this  school  and  to  its  rules. 

2.  To  use  all  prayerful  diligence  in  the  study  and  prepa- 
ration of  the  lesson. 

3.  To  be  in  my  place  regularly  and  punctually.  If  not 
practicable  to  be  present,  to  use  my  best  endeavors  to  pro- 
cure a  suitable  substitute. 

4.  To  attend  the  teachers'  meeting. 

5.  To  visit  and  know  my  scholars  at  their  homes,  and  to 
encourage  them  to  visit  me. 

6.  To  labor  and  pray  earnestly  and  expectantly  for  the 


APPENDIX.  407 

immediate  couversiou  and  constant  religious  growth  of  my 
pupils. 

TEACHERS'    HELPS. 

List  No.  1. — Containing  a  few  essential  Helps  which  every 
teacher  should  own. 

May  be  ordered  from  ihe  Presbyterian  Board  op  Publication, 
1334  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 

PRICE 

^A  good  Reference  Bible,  from  $6  down  to 90 

Superb  edition  of  the  Bible,  Maps,  Index,  etc.,  $10  to $3.00 

Brown's  Concordance 60 

Webster's  Dictionary,  from  $12  down  to 75 

Phillips'  Scripture  Atlas 25 

The  Bible  Text-Book 40 

Mimpriss'  Gospel  Treasury  and  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 2.50 

The  Art  of  Questioning  and  Art  of  Securing  Attention 50 

Lesson  Leaf,  per  annum 9 

Westminster  Question-Book 

Preparing  to  Teach 1.75 

The  Presbyterian  at  Work,  with  Lesson  Notes,  per  annum....  60 

Normal  Class  Series,  Nos.  1  to  4,  per  hundred 37 

Illustrative  Teaching 25 

How  to  Teach.. 10 

A  Church  Catechism 3 

A  Catechism  on  the  Government  and  Discipline  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church 5 

Good  Words  for  Sunday-School  Teachers 5 

Chart  of  Scripture  Offerings  10 

The  Comprehensive  Commentary 20.00 

Cruden's  Concordance  (Abridged),  $2  and 2.50 

Robinson's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 1.25 

Ayres'  Treasury  of  Bible  Knowledge  (Dictionary) 3.00 

Biblical  Antiquities  (Nevins) 1.50 

Hand-Book  of  Bible  Geography  (Whitney) 2.50 

Coleman's  Historical  Text- Book  and  Atlas 2.00 

Simmons'  Scripture  Manual 1.75 

Hand-Book  of  Bible  Manners  and  Customs  (Freeman) 2.50 


Princeton 


heological  Seminary  Libraries 


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